Chapter 1 discusses various definitions of translation, addressing the challenges involved in trying to define the term. Chapter 1 also provides an overview of translation types, such as overt and covert translation, communicative, dynamic and formal translation, grammar translation, and interlinear translation. Equivalence and equivalence types are discussed in connection with the notion of translation, as well as the problems involved in trying to formulate an a priori definition of the term. Additionally, the idea of an equivalence continuum is beneficial for translation as a professional activity, as it helps to situate it within the wider context of cross-cultural communication and the language industry (language for specific purposes, etc.), contributing to forge a more malleable concept of translation as a profession (i.e., language mediation). In addition, the chapter reviews various types of translation-related activities (e.g., editing, revising, reviewing, localization, proofreading for translation, and machine translation).

The chapter explains the process of building Meaning Networks and Systemic Networks, as described in chapter 6, for four semantic fields inspired by the concept of material process and a further two semantic fields inspired by the concept of relational process. The fields are: Change, Creation, Location_change, Possession_transfer, Equivalence, Logical_relation. For each semantic field, the constructions are described as they relate to one another. Their significant features are identified and expressed in Systemic Networks. The distinctions or choices between the constructions are modelled in taxonomies or Meaning Networks.

I explore the question of equivalences or identifications between Virgil’s characters and events and the translators’ own times. In Part 1, I consider how translators invite readers to make identifications between present-day monarchs and Virgilian figures such as Aeneas and Dido, then how some translators appear to identify with aspects of Aeneas and Meliboeus. In Part 2, I address the phenomenon whereby particular translators and cultures respond to Virgil as if he were addressing them specifically and personally, with examples drawn from Polish and Irish literature. In Part 3, I discuss poet-translators’ self-identification with Virgil himself and the implication that they are writing for their equivalent of Augustus. Finally, I move to the phenomenon of ‘transcreation’ or metempsychosis, whereby the poet-translator claims to channel Virgil, and I conclude with translators’ claims to make Virgil speak their own vernacular, taking Dryden as my case study.

Theories about translation and about translation equivalence that have held sway over time are discussed, and corpus exploration is introduced and practised. Methods for investigating the cognitive processes involved in translating include reports by translators themselves about their cognitive activity, but also methods that allow researchers to track translators’ behaviour – in particular their eye movements and gaze and their use of the keyboard when typing their translations. Methods for tracking brain activity during translating are introduced and explained, and the influence of emotion, a relatively recent interest in the discipline, is highlighted. Influential figures in the establishment of translation studies as an independent discipline are introduced.

The chapter begins by exploring ways of working with machine-generated or machine-stored texts. Texts produced with the aid of machine translation (MT) or with the aid of translation memories (TM) can enhance productivity, but almost without exception require significant editing. In the case of MT this usually takes place at the end of the process, in the case of TM typically during the process itself. The distinction between editing and revision is reinforced through an exercise illustrating and inviting practice of the two activities using newspaper articles. Next, the chapter explores translators’ potential uses of the internet for individual or group collaborative translation, and their varying attitudes to this type of collaboration. Finally, it introduces and illustrates an approach to translation analysis known as translational stylistics

This chapter highlights the utility of cultural imagination, the ability to see human behaviors not just as the result of their dispositions or immediate situations but also as the result of larger cultural contexts. Our cultural imagination, as researchers, evolves as we are increasingly exposed to ideas from different parts of the world, either through collaboration with other researchers or interacting with individuals outside our immediate cultural context. While cross-cultural research has become simpler with the rise of the Internet, there still remain many challenges. This current chapter delineates concrete steps one can take to conduct an informative cross-cultural study, increasing the diversity of databases for generalizable theories of personality and social behaviors.

Until recently, algebra was regarded as the domain of the secondary school years in most countries. In addition, it was often regarded in quite narrow ways by non-mathematics teachers, parents and students as being concerned with the manipulation of symbols according to tightly prescribed rules. Recent attention to algebra in the primary school has not regarded it as appropriate that such a narrow view of algebra be taken, leading to the use of terms such as ‘pre-algebra’ or ‘early algebra’ to describe the mathematics involved.

In this chapter, it is recognised that students’ understanding of algebra in the secondary school rests on foundations that are laid in the primary school, as reflected in the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics v. 9.0. These foundations are concerned with key algebraic ideas about patterns and generalisations, rather than with symbolic representations of these, such as x and y. This chapter explores developmental models associated with patterns and algebraic concepts, with a focus on developing algebraic thinking.

Claiming contribution in courts is currently a complex and uncertain task, which may lead to the unenforceability of the right to claim contribution in antitrust. The Chapter makes several recommendations that could simplify and make contribution more effective in the competition law context. Firstly, it must be clearly stated that antitrust infringers have the right to claim contribution in the context of EU competition law and that such a right does not interfere with the principle of effectiveness thereof. Secondly, rules on contribution should be the same for private and public antitrust enforcement, they should be based on one type of claim in the form of a personal right to claim contribution, available when the damages and Commission’s fine are paid. The criterion for determining internal liability should be based on a limited number of factors. A two-pillar rule based on division according to market shares and relative fault is suggested. Finally the regimes of special joint and several liability should be simplified and liability sharing agreements should be endorsed. Liability sharing agreements are the simplest and the most effective tool for securing the right to contribution.

Solving quadratic Diophantine equations amounts to finding the values taken by quadratic forms, a problem that can be fruitfully approached by finding the equivalents of a given form under change of variables. This approach was initiated by Lagrange and developed to a high level by Gauss. However, the way Gauss did it involved an apparently difficult operation called composition of forms, clarified only later by the concept of Abelian group.

Chapter 8 explains a process that is unique to the multilateral safeguard mechanism and that is sometimes misunderstood: the process of rebalancing. The chapter examines the conceptual questions that arise with the general notion of rebalancing as relating to a negotiation-derived consequence. It notes that the obligation of maintaining the balance of concessions informs the whole rebalancing exercise, in particular the consultations under Articles 8.1 and 12.3, the consideration of the means of compensation, and the notion of the withdrawal of substantially equivalent concessions and other obligations under the GATT 1994. The Chapter also explains the temporary suspension of the right to take rebalancing action under Article 8.2, and the natural tension that exists between the mandates of this provision and the conduct of dispute settlement proceedings under the DSU.

This chapter explores the cleaners’ relationships and interactions within their microcosm. It examines how cleaners show little interest in defining themselves as one group and articulating common interests. Friendships and coalitions as well as divisions and strife characterize the cleaners’ microcosm. Cleaners form alliances and divisions as they seek to establish a status hierarchy, by creating and enforcing markers of difference. These markers range from age, gender and ethnicity to fashion, cultural tastes and educational backgrounds. Some are subtle, some are stark. But despite these differentiations, a sense of equivalence persists, posing a threat to any sense of specialness. It is a negative equivalence of belonging to a stigmatized group of “anyones”. Cleaners wish to believe that their work and their presence are on some level unique and valued as such, that they are not interchangeable and replaceable; and to fortify their sense of worth they resort to the creation and enforcement of status hierarchies. Such constructions all too often rest on the most fragile of foundations, and the risk of collapse plays no small role in cleaners’ dramas of dignity.

Chapter 13 argues for the central importance of translation to philosophy, which is ‘born translated’ and constantly renews itself through translation. It considers leading philosophical accounts of translation, focusing on the question of untranslatability, before addressing complementary ways in which translation studies as a discipline has been exercised by philosophical questions, especially concerning translation equivalence and the ethical duty of the translator. The chapter examines some of the purposes met by translations of philosophical texts, and some of the practical issues involved in translating philosophical texts by canonical German philosophers into English.

The rules of the SPS Chapter confirm and reinforce the rules under the WTO SPS Agreement by incorporating not only relevant provisions of the WTO SPS Agreement but also decisions of the WTO SPS Committee. Although most of the “SPS Agreement plus” rules are procedural in nature, they are expected to contribute to the enhanced governance of SPS measures in the Asia-Pacific region. In particular, the SPS Chapter would improve the transparency regarding the adoption and implementation of SPS measures. While the SPS Chapter requires improved transparency among the TPP parties, TPP parties may consider it more efficient and appropriate to take the same transparency measures to non-parties as well. If they apply the transparency measures required by the SPS Chapter on a nondiscriminatory basis, the impact of the SPS Chapter would extend beyond the region. Moreover, if the SPS Chapter is successfully implemented, it could lead to the creation of new rules on SPS measures under other FTAs and the WTO.

This chapter illustrates how the core progressive property tension between guarding against unfair exploitation and avoiding excessive constraint of legislative freedom translates into compensation doctrine. It considers the nature and degree of constitutional protection for security of value that has resulted from the Irish property rights guarantees, including a presumptive entitlement to full compensation for deprivations, and a presumptive lack of entitlement to compensation for regulatory interferences falling short of deprivation. That analysis demonstrates how constitutional property law can combine rule-based and contextual judicial decision-making to generate relatively predictable legal principle. It further illustrates the running theme of judicial deference to political decision-making concerning the mediation of property rights and social justice, since the courts have created space for legislative exceptions to presumptive compensation entitlements to secure social justice.