To assess for differences in low score frequency on cognitive testing amongst older adults with and without a self-reported history of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in the National Alzheimer’s Coordinating Center (NACC) dataset.

The sample included adults aged 65 or older who completed the Uniform Data Set 3.0 neuropsychological test battery (N = 7,363) and was divided by individuals with and without a history of TBI, as well as cognitive status as measured by the CDR. We compared TBI- and TBI + groups by the prevalence of low scores obtained across testing. Three scores falling at or below the 2nd percentile or four scores at or below the 5th percentile were criteria for an atypical number of low scores. Nonparametric tests assessed associations among low score prevalence and demographics, symptoms of depression, and TBI history.

Among cognitively normal participants (CDR = 0), older age, male sex and greater levels of depression were associated with low score frequency; among participants with mild cognitive impairment (CDR = 0.5-1), greater levels of depression, shorter duration of time since most recent TBI, and no prior history of TBI were associated with low score frequency.

Participants with and without a history of TBI largely produced low scores on cognitive testing at similar frequencies. Cognitive status, sex, education, depression, and TBI recency showed variable associations with the number of low scores within subsamples. Future research that includes more comprehensive TBI history is indicated to characterize factors that may modify the association between low scores and TBI history.

To examine the risk of perinatal mental illness, including new diagnoses and recurrent use of mental healthcare, comparing women with and without traumatic brain injury (TBI), and to identify injury-related factors associated with these outcomes among women with TBI.

We conducted a population-based cohort study in Ontario, Canada, of all obstetrical deliveries to women in 2012–2021, excluding those with mental healthcare use in the year before conception. The cohort was stratified into women with no remote mental illness history (to identify new mental illness diagnoses between conception and 365 days postpartum) and those with a remote mental illness history (to identify recurrent illnesses). Modified Poisson regression generated adjusted relative risks (aRRs) (1) comparing women with and without TBI and (2) according to injury-related variables (i.e., number, severity, timing, mechanism and intent) among women with TBI.

There were n = 12,724 women with a history of TBI (mean age: 27.6 years [SD, 5.5]) and n = 786,317 without a history of TBI (mean age: 30.6 years [SD, 5.0]). Women with TBI were at elevated risk of a new mental illness diagnosis in the perinatal period compared to women without TBI (18.5% vs. 12.7%; aRR: 1.31, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.24–1.39), including mood and anxiety disorders. Women with a TBI were also at elevated risk for recurrent use of mental healthcare perinatally (35.5% vs. 27.8%; aRR: 1.18, 95% CI: 1.14–1.22), including mood and anxiety, psychotic, substance use and other mental health disorders. Among women with a history of TBI, the number of TBI-related healthcare encounters was positively associated with an elevated risk of new-onset mental illness.

These findings demonstrate the need for providers to be attentive to the risk for perinatal mental illness in women with a TBI. This population may benefit from screening and tailored mental health supports and treatment options.

This study investigates neuropsychological and psychosocial outcomes in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and post-traumatic epilepsy (PTE) compared to a healthy control group.

Utilizing a quasi-experimental cross-sectional design, the research involved patients with TBI and PTE referred from a Taiwanese medical center. An age- and education-matched control group of healthy adults without traumatic injuries was also recruited. The study involved analyzing retrospective medical records and applying a comprehensive suite of neuropsychological tests and psychosocial questionnaires.

Executive function measures revealed significantly reduced performance in both the TBI and PTE groups compared to controls. Specifically, the MoCA scores were lowest in the PTE group, followed by the TBI group, and highest in the controls. Measures of subjective symptomatology showed comparably elevated levels in both the TBI and PTE groups relative to controls.

The research suggests that PTE may intensify the difficulties faced by individuals with TBI, but its impact on overall recovery might not be significant, considering the trajectory of the brain injury itself. Notably, the MoCA results indicate that cognitive deficits are more pronounced in PTE patients compared to those with TBI, underscoring the necessity for targeted neuropsychological assessments. Further investigation is essential to explore PTE’s broader neuropsychological and psychosocial impacts. These findings advocate for tailored care strategies that address both neuropsychological and psychosocial needs, ensuring comprehensive management of TBI and PTE.

Decompressive craniectomy is part of the acute management of several neurosurgical illnesses, and is commonly followed by cranioplasty. Data are still scarce on the functional and cognitive outcomes following cranioplasty. We aim to evaluate these outcomes in patients who underwent cranioplasty following traumatic brain injury (TBI) or stroke.

In this prospective cohort, we assessed 1-month and 6-month neuropsychological and functional outcomes in TBI and stroke patients who underwent cranioplasty at a Brazilian tertiary center. The primary outcome was the change in the Digits Test at 1 and 6 months after cranioplasty. Repeated measures general linear models were employed to assess the patients' evolution and interactions with baseline characteristics. Effect size was estimated by the partial η2.

A total of 20 TBI and 14 stroke patients were included (mean age 42 ± 14 years; 52.9% male; average schooling 9.5 ± 3.8 years; 91.2% right-handed). We found significant improvements in the Digits Tests up to 6 months after cranioplasty (p = 0.004, partial η2 = 0.183), as well as in attention, episodic memory, verbal fluency, working memory, inhibitory control, visuoconstructive and visuospatial abilities (partial η2 0.106–0.305). We found no interaction between the cranioplasty effect and age, sex or schooling. Patients submitted to cranioplasty earlier (<1 year) after injury had better outcomes.

Cognitive and functional outcomes improved after cranioplasty following decompressive craniectomy for stroke or TBI. This effect was consistent regardless of age, sex, or education level and persisted after 6 months. Some degree of spontaneous improvement might have contributed to the results.

To identify latent trajectories of IQ over time after pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) and examine the predictive value of risk factors within and across recovery trajectories.

206 children ages 3–7 years at injury were included: 87 TBI (23 severe, 21 moderate, 43 complicated mild) and 119 orthopedic injury (OI). We administered intelligence tests shortly after injury (1½ months), 12 months, and 6.8 years postinjury. Latent class growth modeling was used to identify latent subgroups. Separate models examined verbal and nonverbal IQ recovery trajectories following TBI versus OI. Variables included: age at injury, sex, race, socioeconomic status, injury severity, quality of the home environment, family functioning, and parenting style.

Both the TBI and OI analyses yielded different growth models for nonverbal (k = 3) and verbal IQ (k = 3). Although all models resulted in 3 latent classes (below average, average, and aboveaverage performance); trajectory shapes, contributors to class membership, and performance within each class varied by injury group and IQ domain. TBI severity was associated with class membership for nonverbal IQ, with less severe injuries associated with higher IQ scores; however, TBI severity did not influence verbal IQ class membership. Parenting style had a more prominent effect on verbal and nonverbal IQ within the TBI than OI trajectories.

Findings suggest TBI severity is related to recovery trajectories for nonverbal but not verbal IQ and parenting style has stronger effects on recovery in TBI than OI. Results highlight the importance of parental factors on long-term recovery after TBI.

Communication changes following acquired brain injury (ABI) may necessitate use of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). Speech pathologists regularly assist people with ABI and their families with AAC assessment and recommendations, as well as education and training on AAC use. To date, there has been no Australian research investigating the perspectives of speech pathologists working in the field of ABI and AAC. This research aimed to 1) Explore speech pathologists’ insights regarding enablers and barriers to considerations and uptake, and ongoing use, of AAC by people with ABI and 2) Understand their perspectives on AAC acceptance, abandonment and rejection.

A qualitative research design, with semi-structured interviews, was used with seven speech pathologists working across three Australian states. Interviews were transcribed verbatim, and thematically analysed. To triangulate results, the lived experience reflections of one co-author, who has an ABI and uses AAC, were drawn on.

Seven themes were identified, relating to four of the five domains of the World Health Organization’s assistive technology model. These included that AAC should be person-centred, with consideration of both products and personnel required, and with effective policy aiding AAC trial, uptake and use.

This research has highlighted considerations for AAC use by people with ABI, from the perspective of speech pathologists and aided by lived experience reflections. Speech pathologists need to understand the breadth of products, and good practice service steps, to ensure successful AAC use and skill development. Listening to the perspectives of people with ABI is central to that understanding.

Services to support adults with acquired brain injury (ABI) and return to work goals are varied. In Queensland, Australia, return to work goals may be addressed through private or publicly funded rehabilitation services or through publicly funded employment programs. No set frameworks or processes are in place to guide clinicians in providing vocational rehabilitation to adults with ABI, and the extent to which services address clients’ vocational goals and/or provide vocational rehabilitation is unknown.

This qualitative study investigated the clinical practice and experiences of allied health rehabilitation clinicians (n = 34) to identify current practice in providing vocational rehabilitation to adults with ABI, including pathways and services; models, frameworks and tools; and recommendations for ideal services. Focus groups and online surveys were conducted, with data analysed via content analysis.

ABI vocational rehabilitation was inconsistently delivered within and across services in Queensland, with differences in access to services, aspects of vocational rehabilitation provided and timeframes for rehabilitation. Five key themes were identified regarding ABI vocational rehabilitation and service delivery in Queensland: Factors influencing ABI and return to work; Service provision; ABI vocational rehabilitation processes (including assessment tools and interventions); Service gaps; and Ideal ABI vocational rehabilitation services.

These findings can inform clinical practice and development, and current and future service delivery models for ABI vocational rehabilitation.

Blast related characteristics may contribute to the diversity of findings on whether mild traumatic brain injury sustained during war zone deployment has lasting cognitive effects. This study aims to evaluate whether a history of blast exposure at close proximity, defined as exposure within 30 feet, has long-term or lasting influences on cognitive outcomes among current and former military personnel.

One hundred participants were assigned to one of three groups based on a self-report history of blast exposure during combat deployments: 47 close blast, 14 non-close blast, and 39 comparison participants without blast exposure. Working memory, processing speed, verbal learning/memory, and cognitive flexibility were evaluated using standard neuropsychological tests. In addition, assessment of combat exposure and current post-concussive, posttraumatic stress, and depressive symptoms, and headache was performed via self-report measures. Variables that differed between groups were controlled as covariates.

No group differences survived Bonferroni correction for family-wise error rate; the close blast group did not differ from non-close blast and comparison groups on measures of working memory, processing speed, verbal learning/memory, or cognitive flexibility. Controlling for covariates did not alter these results.

No evidence emerged to suggest that a history of close blast exposure was associated with decreased cognitive performance when comparisons were made with the other groups. Limited characterization of blast contexts experienced, self-report of blast distance, and heterogeneity of injury severity within the groups are the main limitations of this study.

To examine neuropsychological functioning as a predictor of psychosocial adjustment difficulties at discharge from a postacute residential rehabilitation facility for traumatic brain injury (TBI) and depression as a potential mediator.

A retrospective record review was conducted of 172 adults who received rehabilitation services for TBI. Individuals completed a full battery of neuropsychological tests, depression assessment, and functional assessments at admission. Functional assessments were also obtained at discharge.

A two-phase structural equation model analysis was performed. The first phase specified a good fitting model of a cognitive functioning (CF) latent construct with four indicators of cognitive domains measuring verbal fluency, cognitive flexibility, verbal learning, and working memory. Worse CF was associated with greater psychosocial adjustment impairment at discharge, but not related to depression. Psychosocial adjustment impairment at admission was positively associated with depression when controlling for CF, however depression did not predict psychosocial adjustment at discharge. Thus, depression was not found to be a significant mediator of psychosocial adjustment impairment at discharge.

Results provide support for neuropsychological functioning at the start of postacute rehabilitation for TBI as an important predictor of psychosocial functioning difficulties that remain upon discharge and highlights the need to examine mechanisms beyond depression.

Despite a well-established link between childhood traumatic brain injury (TBI) and elevated secondary attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (s-ADHD) symptomology, the neurostructural correlates of these symptoms are largely unknown. Based on the influential ‘triple-network model’ of ADHD, this prospective longitudinal investigation aimed to (i) assess the effect of childhood TBI on brain morphometry of higher-order cognitive networks proposed to play a key role in ADHD pathophysiology, including the default-mode network (DMN), salience network (SN) and central executive network (CEN); and (ii) assess the independent prognostic value of DMN, SN and CEN morphometry in predicting s-ADHD symptom severity after childhood TBI.

The study sample comprised 155 participants, including 112 children with medically confirmed mild-severe TBI ascertained from consecutive hospital admissions, and 43 typically developing (TD) children matched for age, sex and socio-economic status. High-resolution structural brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequences were acquired sub-acutely in a subset of 103 children with TBI and 34 TD children. Parents completed well-validated measures of ADHD symptom severity at 12-months post injury.

Relative to TD children and those with milder levels of TBI severity (mild, complicated mild, moderate), children with severe TBI showed altered brain morphometry within large-scale, higher-order cognitive networks, including significantly diminished grey matter volumes within the DMN, SN and CEN. When compared with the TD group, the TBI group showed significantly higher ADHD symptomatology and higher rates of clinically elevated symptoms. In multivariable models adjusted for other well-established risk factors, altered DMN morphometry independently predicted higher s-ADHD symptomatology at 12-months post-injury, whilst SN and CEN morphometry were not significant independent predictors.

Our prospective study findings suggest that neurostructural alterations within higher-order cognitive circuitry may represent a prospective risk factor for s-ADHD symptomatology at 12-months post-injury in children with TBI. High-resolution structural brain MRI has potential to provide early prognostic biomarkers that may help early identification of high-risk children with TBI who are likely to benefit from early surveillance and preventive measures to optimise long-term neuropsychiatric outcomes.

To validate the two-factor structure (i.e., cognitive and somatic) of the Health and Behaviour Inventory (HBI), a widely used post-concussive symptom (PCS) rating scale, through factor analyses using bifactor and correlated factor models and by examining measurement invariance (MI).

PCS ratings were obtained from children aged 8–16.99 years, who presented to the emergency department with concussion (n = 565) or orthopedic injury (OI) (n = 289), and their parents, at 10-days, 3-months, and 6-months post-injury. Item-level HBI ratings were analyzed separately for parents and children using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs). Bifactor and correlated models were compared using various fit indices and tested for MI across time post-injury, raters (parent vs. child), and groups (concussion vs. OI).

CFAs showed good fit for both a three-factor bifactor model, consisting of a general factor with two subfactors (i.e., cognitive and somatic), and a correlated two-factor model with cognitive and somatic factors, at all time points for both raters. Some results suggested the possibility of a third factor involving fatigue. All models demonstrated strict invariance across raters and time. Group comparisons showed at least strong or strict invariance.

The findings support the two symptom dimensions measured by the HBI. The three-factor bifactor model showed the best fit, suggesting that ratings on the HBI also can be captured by a general factor. Both correlated and bifactor models showed substantial MI. The results provide further validation of the HBI, supporting its use in childhood concussion research and clinical practice.

To examine the use of telemedicine among Canadian concussion providers and clinics before and after the COVID-19 pandemic onset and identify barriers and facilitators for future use.

Ninety-nine concussion clinics and healthcare providers across Canada that offered one or more clinical concussion-related service were identified using standardized online searches and approached to complete a cross-sectional online survey.

Thirty clinics or providers completed the survey and two completed subsections of the survey (response rate of 32.3%). Only 28.1% of respondents indicated that they used telemedicine to provide care prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Providers most commonly using telemedicine prior to the pandemic were occupational therapists and physicians, while the most commonly used services were in-person videoconferencing and eConsultation. Most respondents (87%) indicated their clinic’s use of telemedicine changed following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic including new use of in-person video-conferencing, telephone calls, and eConsultation. Ninety-three percent indicated that they would consider using telemedicine to provide care to their concussion patients once the pandemic was over. Barriers needed to be overcome to facilitate use or greater use of telemedicine-based services were the inability to conduct a complete physical examination, lack of appropriate reimbursement, lack of start-up, and maintenance funding and medico-legal risk.

Telemedicine was used by a minority of Canadian concussion clinics and providers prior to the COVID-19 pandemic but was rapidly adopted by many facilities. This study provides important insight into the factors that must be considered to optimize use of telemedicine in concussion care in the future.

The purpose of this study was to pilot safety and tolerability of a 1-week aerobic exercise program during the post-acute phase of concussion (14–25 days post-injury) by examining adherence, symptom response, and key functional outcomes (e.g., cognition, mood, sleep, postural stability, and neurocognitive performance) in young adults.

A randomized, non-blinded pilot clinical trial was performed to compare the effects of aerobic versus non-aerobic exercise (placebo) in concussion patients. The study enrolled three groups: 1) patients with concussion/mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) randomized to an aerobic exercise intervention performed daily for 1-week, 2) patients with concussion/mTBI randomized to a non-aerobic (stretching and calisthenics) exercise program performed daily for 1-week, and 3) non-injured, no intervention reference group.

Mixed-model analysis of variance results indicated a significant decrease in symptom severity scores from pre- to post-intervention (mean difference = −7.44, 95% CI [−12.37, −2.20]) for both concussion groups. However, the pre- to post-change was not different between groups. Secondary outcomes all showed improvements by post-intervention, but no differences in trajectory between the groups. By three months post-injury, all outcomes in the concussion groups were within ranges of the non-injured reference group.

Results from this study indicate that the feasibility and tolerability of administering aerobic exercise via stationary cycling in the post-acute time frame following post-concussion (14–25 days) period are tentatively favorable. Aerobic exercise does not appear to negatively impact recovery trajectories of neurobehavioral outcomes; however, tolerability may be poorer for patients with high symptom burden.

Behavioral changes are common after acquired brain injury (ABI) and may be caused by social cognition impairments. We investigated whether impaired emotion recognition, specifically Negative Emotion Recognition (NER) and Anger Misattribution (AM), after ABI was related to behavioral problems, so-called Behaviors of Concern (BoC).

The study included 139 participants with ABI and 129 healthy controls. BoC was measured using four scales of the Brock Adaptive Functioning Questionnaire (BAFQ): Impulsivity, Aggression, Social Monitoring, and Empathy. Both self-ratings and informant ratings of BoC were obtained. Emotion recognition was measured with the Ekman 60 Faces Test (FEEST). A NER score was composed of the summed scores on Anger, Disgust, Fear, and Sadness. An AM score was composed of the number of facial expressions wrongly recognized as Anger.

Total FEEST scores in ABI participants were significantly worse than in healthy controls. The effect size is moderate. Informants rated significantly more problems in Social Monitoring and Empathy than participants. Effect sizes were small. Scores on FEEST total, NER, and AM were significantly correlated to informant ratings of Social Monitoring. Correlations were weak to moderate.

Worse NER and more profound AM were related to more informant-rated problems in social monitoring. In addition, informants rated more problems in social monitoring and empathy than participants. This strongly suggests problems in self-awareness in ABI participants. Consequently, social cognition tests and informant ratings should be used in clinical practice to improve the detection and treatment of BoC after ABI.

The intention of this paper is to develop the personal concept of appropriate access. We report on the service access experiences and opportunities of adults with an acquired brain injury after leaving inpatient rehabilitation. The benefits of appropriate access underpin standards in early and long-term recovery, though users’ access needs are highly personal.

The study used a qualitative design involving 16 semi-structured interviews with Australian adults with an acquired brain injury after discharge from inpatient brain rehabilitation. Data were thematically analysed.

Three main themes were derived from the analysis. Theme 1 shows that participants valued being steered to services that providers thought appropriate for them early after discharge from inpatient rehabilitation. Theme 2 highlights the tensions between timing and personal recovery and perceived needs. Theme 3 captures participants’ insights into the challenges of gaining access vis-a-vis what the system offers and the enablers of actualising appropriate access.

The positive experiences of being directed to specialist services early after discharge suggest that continuity of care constitutes appropriateness of access for participants in this study. However, it is also clear that continuity should not displace flexibility in the timing of services, to accord with individuals’ perceived needs. This, in addition to enablement of access opportunities, through funding and transport, are important in maintaining a personalised approach.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of (−)-OSU6162 in doses up to 30 mg b.i.d. in patients suffering from mental fatigue following stroke or traumatic brain injury (TBI).

This 4 + 4 weeks double-blind randomised cross-over study included 30 patients afflicted with mental fatigue following a stroke or head trauma occurring at least 12 months earlier. Efficacy was assessed using the Mental Fatigue Scale (MFS), the Self-rating Scale for Affective Syndromes [Comprehensive Psychopathological Rating Scale (CPRS)], the Frenchay Activity Index (FAI), and a battery of neuropsychological tests. Safety was evaluated by recording spontaneously reported adverse events (AEs).

There were significant differences on the patients’ total FAI scores (p = 0.0097), the subscale FAI outdoor scores (p = 0.0243), and on the trail making test (TMT-B) (p = 0.0325) in favour of (−)-OSU6162 treatment. Principal component analysis showed a clear overall positive treatment effect in 10 of 28 patients; those who responded best to treatment had their greatest improvements on the MFS. Reported AEs were mild or moderate in severity and did not differ between the (−)-OSU6162 and the placebo period.

The most obvious beneficial effects of (−)-OSU6162 were on the patients’ activity level, illustrated by the improvement on the FAI scale. Moreover, a subgroup of patients showed substantial improvements on the MFS. Based on these observed therapeutic effects, in conjunction with the good tolerability of (−)-OSU6162, this compound may offer promise for treating at least part of the symptomatology in patients suffering from stroke- or TBI-induced mental fatigue.

To review the current knowledge about Diogenes symptoms and organic personality disorder through systematic review of the literature and the analysis of a case.

Case report. Review. Literature sources were obtained through electronic search in PubMed.gov database of 10 last years.

Background: Diogenes syndrome is a behavioral disorder characterized by severe self-neglect, hoarding, domestic dirt, and lack of shame regarding one's living state. Patients may present due to a range of reasons, few studies has been described hoarding symptoms secondary to brain injury. Early management could reduce their high-mortality condition.

We present a case of a 67-year-old Caucasian female known with a organic personality disorder secondary to a head trauma with obsessive hoarding symptoms. After being hospitalizated, we were authorized to explore her personal items trough photographs. Her handbag and her house were filled with rubbish and rotting food. Our patient had no insight into any self-hygiene or public health problems.

Information of the characteristics of Diogenes syndrome can help in earlier recognition of such persons, in order to decrease their morbidity and mortality.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Soccer is the most popular sport worldwide and is the only sport where athletes purposely use their head to deflect the ball during play, termed “heading” the ball. These repetitive head impacts (RHI) are associated with worse neuropsychological function; however, factors that can increase risk of injury following exposure to such head impacts have been largely unexamined. The present study provided a novel examination of the modifying role of sleep on the relationship between RHI exposure and neuropsychological function in college-age soccer players.

Fifty varsity and intramural college soccer players completed questionnaires assessing recent and long-term heading exposure, a self-report measure of sleep function, and a battery of neuropsychological tests.

A high level of recent heading exposure was significantly associated with poorer processing speed, independent of concussion history. With reduced sleep duration, a high level of recent heading exposure was related to worse sustained attention. However, with greater hours of sleep duration, heading exposure was related to preserved neuropsychological outcome in sustained attention.

We replicated our earlier finding of an association between recent head impact exposure and worse processing speed in an independent sample. In addition, we found that sleep may serve as a risk or protective factor for soccer players following extensive exposure to head impacts. Ultimately, this study furthers the understanding of factors impacting neuropsychological function in soccer players and provides empirical support for sleep interventions to help ensure safer soccer play and recovery from injury.

Interest in neurofeedback therapies (NFTs) has grown exponentially in recent years, encouraged both by escalating public interest and the financial support of health care funding agencies. Given NFTs’ growing prevalence and anecdotally reported success in treating common effects of acquired brain injury (ABI), a systematic review of the efficacy of NFTs for the rehabilitation of ABI-related cognitive impairment is warranted.

Eligible studies included adult samples (18+ years) with ABI, the use of neurofeedback technology for therapeutic purposes (as opposed to assessment), the inclusion of a meaningful control group/condition, and clear cognitive–neuropsychological outcomes. Initial automated search identified n = 86 candidate articles, however, only n = 4 studies met the stated eligibility criteria.

Results were inconsistent across studies and cognitive domains. Methodological and theoretical limitations precluded robust and coherent conclusions with respect to the cognitive rehabilitative properties of NFTs. We take the results of these systematic analyses as a reflection of the state of the literature at this time. These results offer a constructive platform to further discuss a number of methodological, theoretical, and ethical considerations relating to current and future NFT–ABI research and clinical intervention.

Given the limited quantity and quality of the available research, there appears to be insufficient evidence to comment on the efficacy of NFTs within an ABI rehabilitation context at this time. It is imperative that future work increase the level of theoretical and methodological rigour if meaningful advancements are to be made understanding and evaluating NFT–ABI applications.