We investigated the interactive effects of bilingualism and sleep on executive functioning at the behavioral level. We conducted two experiments using two independent samples of bilingual young adults, the Flanker task to assess executive performance, the Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index to measure retrospective sleep quality over a one-month period and the Insomnia Severity Index to assess insomnia-related symptoms. In Experiment 1, we registered bilingualism effects on executive performance in poor, but not in good sleepers. In Experiment 2, the magnitude of bilingual effects increased with increasing severity of insomnia symptoms. We conclude that when poor sleep quality and insomnia negatively affect cognitive resources, bilingualism-related cognitive effects emerge more prominently. This suggests higher degrees of bilingualism may compensate detrimental effects of poor sleep quality and insomnia on executive functioning. We suggest that cognitive research in bilingualism and sleep could benefit from controlling for interindividual variability in sleep quality and vice versa.

The bilingual advantage hypothesis, which associates bilingualism with benefits in executive functioning (EF), has been challenged by studies demonstrating inconsistent results. Considering explicit calls to revise the hypothesis, research has turned toward understanding which specific bilingualism-related aspects might impact bilinguals’ EF. Notably, patterns of everyday language use, referred to as interactional contexts in the adaptive control hypothesis (ACH), have emerged as a prominent factor modulating the association between bilingualism and EF. This scoping review synthesizes findings from 49 studies investigating interactional contexts and bilinguals’ EF. The results indicate that the current literature is highly heterogeneous regarding the operationalization, measurement, experimental manipulations of interactional contexts, the EF tasks employed and sample characteristics. This variability limits definitive conclusions about the adaptation of bilinguals’ EF to the demands of interactional contexts. More studies with comparable research designs and clearer predictions on the associations between EF domains and bilinguals’ language-use patterns are needed.

Non-word repetition (NWR) is often utilized for the assessment of phonological short-term memory (PSTM) and as a clinical marker for language-related disorders. In this study, associations between children's language competence and their performance in language-specific NWR tasks as well as the relevance of NWR for the prediction of language development were scrutinized. German preschoolers (N = 1,801) were compared regarding their performance in NWR, German vocabulary, and articulation. For 141 children, results of a school enrolment test were available. Multilingual children performed as well as monolingual German-speaking children in NWR only under the condition of comparable German language skills. NWR performance depended on item length, children's vocabulary and articulation skills and was weakly associated with language-related medical issues. The predictive power of NWR for children's performance in the school enrolment test was minimal. To conclude, chosen German-based NWR tasks did not deliver convincing results as a clinical marker or predictor of language development.

This study examined the linguistic and cognitive characteristics of two groups of Italian preschoolers with developmental language disorder (DLD): one group of monolingual Italian speakers and another of Italian-Slovenian bilinguals. The assessment focused on executive functions (EFs) (i.e., phonological working memory and inhibitory control) and linguistic abilities, which involved a multilevel analysis of discourse production. The bilingual group outperformed the monolingual group on tasks measuring EFs. While the two groups showed similar performance across several linguistic measures, the bilingual children demonstrated superior grammatical comprehension, albeit with high variability. A similar level of variability was observed in the bilingual group’s phonological discrimination abilities. Both grammatical comprehension and phonological discrimination were significantly correlated with EFs. These findings are discussed in the context of current theories of linguistic development in bilingual children with DLD.

This study investigates whether lower self-regulation (SR) facets are risk factors for internalizing symptoms (vulnerability models), consequences of these symptoms (scar models), or develop along the same continuum and thus share common causes (spectrum models) during middle childhood. To analyze these models simultaneously, a random intercept cross-lagged panel model was estimated using Mplus. Data were assessed at three measurement time points in a community-based sample of N = 1657 (52.2% female) children in Germany, aged 6–13. Internalizing symptoms were measured via parent report by the emotional problems scale of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Seven SR facets were assessed behaviorally, via parent report and teacher report. At the within-person level, internalizing symptoms were concurrently associated with emotional reactivity at all measurement time points, while no cross-lagged paths reached significance. At the between-person level, internalizing symptoms were associated with working memory updating (r = −.29, p < .001), inhibitory control (r = −.29, p < .001), planning behavior (r = −.49, p < .001), and emotional reactivity (r = .59, p < .001). As internalizing symptoms and SR facets were primarily associated at the between-person level, the results lend support to spectrum models suggesting common causes of internalizing symptoms and impaired SR.

This review investigates the complex dynamics of code-switching (CS), the spontaneous alternation between languages within a conversation, particularly its implications for cognitive processes like executive functions (EFs). Analysing post-2015 studies, it critically assesses 23 experiments. Through stringent criteria and comprehensive search strategies, the review identifies factors influencing CS types and their impact on cognition, highlighting methodological inconsistencies and confounds. It highlights the evolving perspectives on CS, ranging from pragmatic approaches emphasizing communicative functions to structural analyses focusing on linguistic constraints. It underscores the importance of considering factors such as language competence, typological proximity and cognitive processes in understanding CS behaviour. It emphasizes the need for precise CS typology assessment to understand the complex link between CS behaviour and cognitive functioning, bridging linguistic and cognitive domains. This review contributes to clarifying inconsistencies in CS research methodology and findings, aiming to elucidate the factors influencing CS types and their implications for cognition.

There is evidence to suggest that the effects of bilingualism on executive functions (EFs) need to be examined along a continuum rather than a dichotomy. The present study addressed this need by examining the influence of different bilingual experiences on executive functioning using a Flanker and Stroop mouse-tracking task that taps into more dynamic cognitive processes than typical behavioral paradigms. We sampled 98 bilingual young adults and investigated conflict and sequential congruency effects (SCEs). We found that mouse-tracking metrics captured links that were not identified with overall reaction times. SCEs were more sensitive to detecting relations between L2 experiences and EF than simple conflict effects. Second-language age of acquisition and L1/L2 switching frequency consistently predicted EF outcomes. This association was moderated by the attentional demands of the task. These findings highlight the complexity of the effects of bilingualism on cognition, and the use of more sensitive measures to capture these effects.

Introduction: Cognitive function has traditionally been associated with mental abilities, but there are reports that it may be associated with performance in physical function and even in ADLs. This relationship between the mental and the physical raises important questions about comprehensive health across the life course.

Methods: A cross-sectional descriptive observational study was carried out with correlation analysis between the main variables under study. The purpose of the research was to establish the functional relationship between muscle strength, gait speed, and cognitive functions in elderly people with or without cognitive impairments at 55 years of age. Cognitive function (MOCA), ABVD (Barthel index), IADL (Lawton and Brody questionnaire), and anthropometric and physical function variables were studied. A descriptive and inferential analysis of the data obtained was performed together with a correlation analysis to establish the functional relationship between the groups of variables. Ethical safeguards were taken in all cases, and informed consent approved by the Ethics Committee of the Catholic University of Temuco, Chile, was applied.

Results: The primary findings of this study show that, in older individuals with or without cognitive impairment, muscle strength, gait speed, and cognitive function have a functional relationship. There is also a strong correlation between these variables’ performance in the physical domain. In addition, sex-associated differences were detected that are relevant to study and investigate in further studies. The effect of aging was differentiated in the case of women (younger than 75 years and older than 75 years) without detecting significant differences, but there was a tendency to increase deterioration with increasing cognitive and physicalage.

Conclusions: Cognitive function is related to physical performance variables, and these may be predictors of aging as attenuators or aggravators. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to consider the interrelationship of these variables when addressing the health and well-being of this population. It is necessary to investigate aspects that generate preventive actions aimed at healthy and active aging, especially in the performance of cognitive function related to activities of daily living (basic and instrumental).

This study aimed to delineate profiles of self-regulation among sexually abused children and their association with behavior problems using a person-centered approach. A sample of 223 children aged six to 12, their parents, and teachers were recruited in specialized intervention centers. Latent profile analysis revealed four profiles: (1) Dysregulated, (2) Inhibited, (3) Flexibly Regulated, and (4) Parent Perceived Self-Regulation. Children from the Flexibly Regulated profile showed relatively low behavior problems, and those from the Dysregulated profile were characterized by high behavior problems. Children from the Parent Perceived Self-Regulation profile showed overall good adaptation, although teachers reported higher behavior problems than parents. Children from the Inhibited profile, characterized by the highest level of inhibition but low parent-rated emotion regulation competencies and executive functions, showed the highest level of internalizing behavior problems, indicating that high inhibition does not necessarily translate to better adaptation. Results also show a moderation effect of sex. Being assigned to the Inhibited profile was associated with decreased externalizing behaviors in boys and increased internalizing behaviors in girls. This study underscores the complexity of self-regulation in sexually abused children and supports the need to adopt a multi-method and multi-informant approach when assessing these children.

In processing their two languages, bilinguals have to selectively attend to the target language and reduce interference from the non-target language. This experience may have specific cognitive consequences on Executive Functions (EF) through bilingual language processing. Some studies found cognitive consequences in executive functioning skills. However, other studies did not replicate these findings or found a bilingual disadvantage. The aim of this study was to test for the cognitive consequences of bilingualism in EF among a large number of young adults using a latent variable approach, to rule out non-EF task differences as an explanation for inconsistency across studies. Also, we were interested in testing the EF structure using the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) approach. The results did not support a cognitive consequence of bilingualism and also the EF structure was the same for both groups. We discuss other possible variables that might contribute to the mixed results across studies.

Executive functions (EFs) in both regulatory and meta-cognitive contexts are important for a wide variety of children’s daily activities, including play and learning. Despite the growing literature supporting the relationship between EF and language, few studies have focused on these links during everyday behaviours. Data were collected on 208 children from 6 to 12 years old of whom 89 were deaf children (55% female; M = 8;8; SD = 1;9) and 119 were typically hearing children (56% female, M = 8;9; SD = 1;5). Parents completed two inventories: to assess EFs and language proficiency. Parents of deaf children reported greater difficulties with EFs in daily activities than those of hearing children. Correlation analysis between EFs and language showed significant levels only in the deaf group, especially in relation to meta-cognitive EFs. The results are discussed in terms of the role of early parent–child interaction and the relevance of EFs for everyday conversational situations.

Prosody refers to stress and intonation patterns in a language. Previous studies have found that prosodic sensitivity (PS) and executive functions can affect reading comprehension in first (L1) and second languages (L2). The current study examined these factors among a group of L1 Mandarin speakers learning L2 English who participated in a series of tasks measuring phonological awareness, Mandarin tone sensitivity, English PS, along with three specific executive functions – namely, cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and working memory. The results demonstrated that Mandarin tone sensitivity and cognitive flexibility mediated English PS and reading. A simple slope analysis showed that PS positively predicted word reading for readers with higher but not lower cognitive flexibility. These results imply that PS in L2 reading is affected by both prosodic transfer of L1 tone sensitivity and cognitive flexibility.