“My entire family’s history is tied to that of Maasina … and the wars that tore it apart.”Footnote 1
Amadou Hampâté Bâ
“It is time to break the formidable psychological charge that weighs upon this episode in Mali’s history.”Footnote 2
Bintou Sanankoua
It was on a Thursday that Mamadu Caam gathered with several witnesses, including one of his sons and a trusted neighbor, in Mopti (Mali), to seal the terms of his daughter’s marriage contract. The year was 1962, and Hawaly – Caam and his wife Kumba Barri’s eldest – was to be wedded soon. The document Caam drew that day featured a binding clause addressed to Hawaly’s betrothed. “I notified him,” Caam stated, “that I would not grant him my daughter’s hand in marriage unless he complies with the following condition: if he marries her, he shall not lead her away from Mopti, ever. He shall not take her with him on any journey, to any land. Should he wish to visit his hometown, he shall not go with her; he shall leave her here.”Footnote 3 Why was the possibility of future travels centered in the planning of a couple’s married life? What do the stories of intimacy and mobility the document points to, reveal about broader forces that shaped family life in the Inland Niger River Delta in the mid-twentieth century?
A Senegal-born trader who lived in Mopti, Mamadu Caam (c. 1895–1971) was my paternal grandfather (Figure 1).Footnote 4 I started increasingly thinking of him not merely as a family figure, but as one of the historical subjects I studied, while conducting research years ago for my doctoral dissertation. In the national archives in Dakar and Bamako, I had pored over colonial surveillance files that the French Muslim Affairs bureau compiled, surveying the ideologies and itinerancies of African Muslim men. Knowing my grandfather had been one such migrant, born in Senegal but settled in the French Soudan, and bore the title Ceerno (Fula, Islamic teacher) it dawned on me that I might come across a file about him.Footnote 5
Figure 1. Mamadu Caam, c. 1960, Mopti. Unknown photographer.
As I discussed my research with family members, one of them revealed that the family did in fact possess papers that had belonged to Caam. I eagerly asked to consult them, as a window into the trajectory of a man I might encounter in the surveillance files, but from his own perspective. In 2016, my uncle brought these papers over from Mopti, my paternal family’s hometown in Mali, to Bamako. Several relatives noted that the small box – a carton previously used to package 1.5-liter water bottles – only represented a fraction of what Caam had left behind (Figure 2). Since his death, as marriages, births, guests and the need for storage put pressure on available space in the shared home, the family had gradually discarded his items. In that, these materials differ from those Olufemi Vaughan relied upon in his study of three thousand letters belonging to his father, a civil servant in colonial Ibadan. A decade after his father Abiọdun’s passing, Vaughan summoned the “time, energy, and courage” needed to dive in these documents.Footnote 6 Although Abiọdun perhaps did not anticipate his letters becoming the basis of a monograph, he arguably played three distinct roles in the making of his son’s book. As historical actor, he produced written sources, mobilizing English literacy to correspond with family for nearly seven decades. As archivist, he meticulously conserved, ordered, and labeled his papers – Vaughan largely mirrors the archival structure his father curated, to organize his book chapters. As father, he intentionally handed these letters over to his son, seven months before passing. In contrast, my grandfather’s materials felt thin and messy. In the forty-five years since his death, they had been (dis)ordered and discarded through the interventions of two generations of family members, then fortuitously passed on to a granddaughter he never met. The extant files are mostly artefacts of his encounters with the colonial administration: postal, administrative, tax and voting records. There are also a few books, including a Qur’an, and a small sample of ten personal papers and letters mostly in Arabic, except for two in French.
Figure 2. The box containing Caam’s papers. Photo credit: author.
Putting these papers in conversation with oral interviews, family narratives, and external archival sources, this article offers an intimate history of translocal mobility, and community-building in the wake of war, in the Sahel. I employ intimacy as both method and argument. Methodologically, intimate history points to my relationship to the historical actors I write about: my paternal kin. The sources this method relies on are rich and original, but also demand heightened critical scrutiny from me, precisely because they come from family. Indeed, structures of power, mythmaking, and erasure shape the production of family archives – oral, written, or embodied – just as much as they do any institutional repository. In addition, intimacy lies at the heart of how I argue my grandfather and other West African Muslims experienced time and space in the colonial Sahel. Caam carefully curated his family relationships, and intimately connected distant epochs and lands, to craft his own timescape away from the colonial time and territories he lived under.
In recent years, an increasing number of scholars have engaged their own family’s history.Footnote 7 In the United States, as Kendra Taira Field writes, it was African-American scholars, both in and outside of the academy, who pioneered this scholarship.Footnote 8 To push back against colonial epistemologies, African scholars, particularly within African feminist studies, and recently within Islamic African studies, have produced a rich literature operating “from within,” harnessing the epistemologies of the communities they belong to.Footnote 9 They have also highlighted the central role their family has played in shaping their knowledge and methodologies.Footnote 10 Still, besides Vaughan, few African scholars have explicitly taken their family as an object of historical inquiry. There are many reasons why scholars might wish to withdraw their personal lives from the reach of readers and critique. Marisa Fuentes admits she “forcefully resist[s] offering the personal to academic scrutiny and politics – to make [herself] vulnerable to the public gaze.”Footnote 11
In this article, moving between Mali, Senegal, and other locales in northwest Africa, I situate part of my family history at the nexus of three historiographies: nineteenth-century Islamic revolutions, colonial and postcolonial African migrations, and marriage and gender. This work is challenging, not merely because of the vulnerability Fuentes evokes, but because it also requires wading through an inward “territory in which home is not only the location of work but also its subject and perhaps also its methodology.”Footnote 12 As such, the fieldwork this article is based on has extended before and beyond the delineated time of this research project. Narratives I’ve heard since childhood informed my interpretation of sources, and vice versa. Research has also been a collective process, its contours blending into those of family gatherings and requisite visits to elders. In Bamako, opening Caam’s papers became a communal moment, involving several of his children and grandchildren (Figure 3). In northern Senegal, a family trip doubled as research. “Working from home” has also meant dealing with conflicting emotions: at the archives, the possibility of encountering a file about my grandfather triggered in equal parts hope and anxiety. While this discovery may have helped fill in part of his youth his children knew little about, surveillance files were reductive, and often full of inaccuracies. This was already a cause of frequent frustration in the archives, which I would have felt more acutely had I witnessed a relative’s life flattened and put to paper by a colonial official.
Figure 3. Opening Caam’s papers. Photo credit: author.
Lastly, the specifics of my relationship with each relative I mention in this article has affected, I came to recognize, my ability to carry out historical analysis and writing about them. I found myself relatively at ease maintaining critical distance with my grandfather, whom I have never met: I was born nearly a hundred years after him, and exactly two decades after he passed. It has proved far easier for me to cast him away as a character from the past – the twentieth century’s figurative firstborn – and craft a historical argument about him. The same cannot be said of my aunt or my grandmother, whose smell, touch, and voices I remember. There, the process triggers more reluctance and doubt. Exposing them to public view feels vulnerable, and the risk of flattening their lives, as I put them to paper, feels more acute.
In what follows, I argue that my grandfather Mamadu Caam actively and intimately connected distant times and spaces, with the time and space his own life was set within. He did so through specific mobility practices, intimate relationships, and memories cultivated or suppressed within his household. Born in a nascent colonial world, Caam stood at the intersection of a wave of social, economic, and political changes. Through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, West African Muslim scholars and reformers had produced and spread new ideas and ideologies. Several among them, turned revolutionaries, had taken up arms and erected states, remaking the world from the shores of the Atlantic to Lake Chad. By the 1860s, the era of sovereign African states was rubbing against that of European imperialism in the Sahel, with societies and landscapes remade in the resulting fault lines.
These coalescing temporalities were particularly salient in the riverine city of Mopti, in the Inland Niger Delta. Unlike Segu, Jenne, or Timbuktu, Mopti remains significantly understudied in historical scholarship on today’s Mali.Footnote 13 Yet as I argue, a local focus on Mopti illustrates how African colonial subjects crafted specific geographies and temporalities for themselves, to nurture community and belonging under empire. As Mopti was expanding into a colonial commercial hub in the twentieth century, the city still felt ripples from a major event: the Delta’s invasion by the troops of El Hajj Umar Taal in the mid-nineteenth century. An erudite scholar originally from Fuuta Toro (Senegal), Taal was a leading figure in the Tijāniyya Sufi order. He amassed a considerable following through his writings and teachings, and led a jihad between 1852 and 1864. His final conquest was that of the Maasina Caliphate, a theocracy that local Muslim revolutionaries had erected in the Delta.
Taal’s 1862 invasion of the Delta, and the subsequent three decades-long war his nephew Tijani waged in the region, have mainly been studied through the lens of political and military history.Footnote 14 Scholars have also analyzed the theological arguments Taal marshaled to legitimize his attack on Maasina.Footnote 15 This article departs from the literatures on the military, political, and intellectual underpinnings of the Fuutanke–Maasinanke conflict, and privileges the intimate instead.Footnote 16 Taking the mid nineteenth-century conflict as the point of departure, I examine the logics that drove my grandfather’s migrations from Senegal decades later, and the household he and my Soudan-born grandmother built in Mopti. I argue that mobility, marriage, and the making of Fuutanke–Maasinanke families, are a key – yet long overlooked – window to analyze the longue durée impact of Taal’s conquest of the Delta. This intimate lens unsettles common partitionings in African historiography. It highlights place-based temporalities over divisions between the eras before, during, and after colonization, and emphasizes spiritual and affective geographies over state-centered ones. As I show, the nineteenth-century Umarian expansion created communities linked by a shared religious practice, but also shared memories of violence. In the wake of this expansion, in the twentieth century, Fula-speaking families and members of the Tijaniyya across two regions, the Senegalese Fuuta and the Soudanese Delta, were bound by a common timescape rooted in an era that predated the colonial time they lived under. To be sure, imperial rule and colonial violence structured and constrained their lives. Yet as I argue, they also charted a path shaped by the afterlives of the Umarian jihad, which facilitated translocal mobility and belonging. This specific timescape was particularly salient in Mopti, where memories of the war sedimented into silenced wounds and intimate relationships.
Umarian hegemony in the Delta
In 1862, Umar Taal’s troops entered Hamdallahi, the capital of the Maasina Caliphate, following a seven-day battle.Footnote 17 The Caliphate was a young state that Seku Amadu, a local scholar, had founded in 1818 in the Delta, after leading a revolution against Muslim elites in Jenne and Timbuktu, and fighting the rulers of Segu and other non-Muslim communities in the Delta.Footnote 18 As the Maasina Caliphate flourished in the Delta, another revolutionary movement was growing from territories further west, closer to the Atlantic coast, led by Umar Taal, a prominent Muslim intellectual from Fuuta Toro (Figure 4). Following his initiation into the Tijaniyya, Taal had pursued education across the Sahel, North Africa, and Hejaz. In 1829 in Mecca, he was named khalīfa (Arabic, deputy) of the Tijaniyya for West Africa, where he then returned.Footnote 19 He dedicated himself to scholarly production, including “perhaps the most widely disseminated work by any nineteenth-century West African author,” the monumental Kitāb al-Rimāḥ, which would largely contribute to the Tijaniyya’s spread.Footnote 20 In 1852, he took up arms during a conflict with a local ruler in Dinguiray (northern Guinea), which he soon expanded into a military jihad. Taal eventually consolidated a state that expanded across swaths of today’s Senegal, Mali, and Guinea. His 1862 war on Maasina, a theocracy built by fellow Muslims, was contentious even within his own ranks, in light of his previous condemnations of conflict among Muslims, and stated aim of protecting Islam.Footnote 21 Still, Taal defeated Maasina, settled in the Delta, and successfully held this position for two years. In 1864, facing a counter-attack by Maasina-Timbuktu loyalists, Taal vanished, likely killed, in the Deguembere caves near Bandiagara. His nephew Tijani would eventually complete his conquest. By waging continuous wars against the Maasinanke over the next twenty-four years, and establishing his own state at Bandiagara, Tijani sealed Umarian hegemony in the region until the French colonial invasion.Footnote 22
Figure 4. Maasina and Fuuta Toro in the late eighteenth century. Courtesy of Henry B. Lovejoy, Digital Slavery Research Lab, University of Colorado, Boulder.
In his lifetime, Umar Taal had contended with intensifying French imperialism. In the decades following his death, France expanded its occupation of West Africa’s hinterland. By the early twentieth century, France had carved and partitioned eight colonial territories in the region, consolidating them as the French West Africa federation, stretching from the Sahara to the Atlantic. Taal’s native Fuuta was sundered along the banks of the Senegal river, split between Senegal and Mauritania. As for the Delta, it now formed the geographical core of the French Soudan (Figure 5).
Figure 5. The French Soudan and Inland Delta c. 1915. Courtesy of Henry B. Lovejoy, Digital Slavery Research Lab, University of Colorado, Boulder.
The century’s firstborn
As the remnants of the Umarian domain collapsed, my grandfather Mamadu Caam was born in the eastern Fuuta, around 1895.Footnote 23 He was among “the century’s firstborns,” as Amadou Hampâté Bâ described this generation, thrust into a world at the cusp between the eras of sovereign West African states, and European colonial occupation.Footnote 24 To illustrate the plural timescapes this generation experienced, I survey Caam’s early years and emigration from Fuuta, his travels in West Africa, and settlement in the Delta.Footnote 25
Growing up in early colonial Fuuta, Caam would have been raised amid remembrances of Taal’s teachings, as the Tijaniyya was growing in the region. Indeed, though Taal and his followers had spread the Tijaniyya elsewhere in West Africa in the 1840s–1860s, it was not widespread in Taal’s native Fuuta. However, between 1891 and 1893, Governor Louis Archinard expelled some 15,000 Taal followers from the Soudan, towards the Senegalese Fuuta.Footnote 26 Many among these returnees had been born in the Fuuta and were known as the fergaŋkooɓe (Fula, those who had emigrated to support the jihad). Their deportation was traumatic, the arduous journey on foot marked by death, starvation, disease, exhaustion, and exposure to wild animals and plunderers.Footnote 27 Those who did make it to Fuuta received an enthusiastic welcome, heralded as having heeded Taal’s call, engaged in a righteous struggle, and resisted the French.Footnote 28 According to David Robison, the settlement of tens of thousands of fergaŋkooɓe led to Fuuta’s emergence, at the turn of the century, as a “vital foyer” of the Tijaniyya.Footnote 29 It is in this newly colonized environment, imbued with the faraway tales and Tijani teachings of the returnees, that Caam was raised.Footnote 30 Sometime around 1915, Caam left his village, never to resettle again. My father and uncles, his only surviving children, are unsure as to when exactly he left the region. However, when we spoke, they were confident as to why he emigrated, namely, in pursuit of education. In doing so, Caam, who had scholars in his lineage, would have followed a Muslim tradition of itinerant study under renowned teachers.Footnote 31
Though the pursuit of education is a coherent factor behind Caam’s emigration, it is possible that the new colonial context also pushed him away from home. In Fuuta, World War I’s eruption triggered food shortages, famine, and forced conscriptions, spurring the outward migrations of young men.Footnote 32 In 1912, a law had established compulsory military service throughout French West Africa, with one yearly conscription.Footnote 33 After the war started, conscription occurred twice a year, and cast a wider net: starting in 1915, all men between 18 and 35 years old could be drafted.Footnote 34 Conscription bred desertion, and many young men fled to evade war.Footnote 35 What’s more, from 1912 to 1917, Fuuta experienced “locust swarms, drought, grain and cattle diseases,” which put a strain on available food resources.Footnote 36 The French further squeezed the population through tax increases and mandatory reimbursement for food relief they had provided during the environmental calamities. Thus in 1917, “despite one of the worst cattle epidemics that Fuuta ever experienced, along with the havoc caused by grain disease, a 50% tax increase was imposed.”Footnote 37 As Mouhamed Moustapha Kane shows, fiscal pressure combined with natural disasters culminated in famine in Fuuta: oral histories report people resorting to eating leaves and carcasses, or digging holes in anthills in search for food.Footnote 38 Young people, particularly young men, massively emigrated to seek relief and revenue to send to their family. Caam’s emigration may therefore have been triggered by the pursuit of religious education, the threats of hunger and conscription, or these two factors coalescing. Once he did leave, Tijani networks enabled his continued travels.
An Umarian archipelago
Caam’s journey took him across various cities in Fuuta, other regions in Senegal, and beyond, other territories in French West Africa. His sons recall some of the places they know he had spent time in: Podor and Saint-Louis, in Senegal; Bobo Juulaso, in the Upper Volta; and Kayes, Segu, Nioro, Sofara, and Bandiagara, in the Soudan.Footnote 39 Some of these cities, such as Saint-Louis or Bobo Juulaso, were major commercial hubs where work would have been available. The others, particularly Podor and the Soudanese cities, have another common denominator: they had been key sites in the Umarian expansion, and were home to significant Tijani communities. As such, Caam’s migrations were facilitated by what I call the Umarian archipelago: a connected set of cities, villages, and places dispersed across West Africa, which had been important sites of the nineteenth-century Umarian and Tijani expansion.Footnote 40 Long after Taal’s death, his imprint was still palpable in these places. The archipelago was connected, not as an institutional formation, but as a community anchored around shared knowledge, memories, texts, discourse, and practices.
Indeed, the jihad Taal led in 1852–64 and the dominion he built – fragments of which his sons and nephew maintained through the early 1890s – left a long-lasting impact. It triggered death, displacements, and enslavements in conquered areas. In the Delta, tens of thousands were killed or made captive during the Umarian conquest of Maasina.Footnote 41 After Taal’s death, his nephew Tijani’s continuous campaigns over the next twenty-four years left the Delta worn out, in a constant state of war.Footnote 42 On the other hand, the Umarian expansion contributed to profound social change in the Delta and beyond. One manifestation was the settlement of migrants from Fuuta in the region. Another was the Tijaniyya’s spread.Footnote 43
Even after the erection of colonial territories, Tijani disciples moving across the Umarian archipelago would not have felt part of a world partitioned by borders. Instead, their geographical imagination was structured around a string of Umarian places strung together like prayer beads, breaking across colonial borders. Across the archipelago, a stranger could seek shelter, community, and education, allowing Muslims to engage in regional mobility. The places making up the archipelago thus reflected Umarians’ “situated knowledge” and spiritual geographies.Footnote 44 Here, my conceptualizing of Umarian places mirrors Cheikh Anta Babou’s theorization of transnational Murid place-making.Footnote 45 Babou contends that a Murid place, as opposed to a mere space, “draws its significance from infused meaning and value,” and that “it is the transformative power of people, practices, objects and symbols that turns space into place.” In this sense, the places that made up the Umarian archipelago may have been villages or towns where fergaŋkooɓe returnees had left their imprint, a zawiya (lodge), a scholar’s library, a family home, a saint’s resting place, or a Qur’anic school. In such places, Tijani semiotics were continuously reinscribed through the “accumulated biographical experiences” of itinerant Tijani disciples.Footnote 46 Such semiotics included remembrances of Ahmad al-Tijani – the eighteenth-century founder of the Tijaniyya – and Umar Taal, and the resonance of the litanies that disciples recite daily. Lastly, as Madina Ly-Tall noted, Tijani disciples were bound by the “recommendation of reciting prayers in a communal manner, the obligation to keep company with one another, and to help and love each other.”Footnote 47 Such daily communal devotional practices would have reinforced a deep sense of belonging, care, and togetherness across the archipelago.
Qur’anic schools were cornerstones of the Umarian archipelago. In explaining the Tijaniyya’s expansion under colonial rule, Ibrahima-Abou Sall has argued that “the mesh network of qur’anic schools” across several colonial territories “proved to be an asset to the Tijaniyya.” In Fuuta, where Caam’s journey started, qur’anic schools were called dude (Fula, sing. dudal). Sall’s description of one such school in the Mauritanian Fuuta, the Dudal Galle Sakhobe, is instructive. The school operated between 1906 and 1934 under the stewardship of Ceerno Amadu Mukhtar Sakho, a Segu-born Umarian returnee who had settled in Fuuta after the French expulsion from the Soudan. The school was a multilingual and cosmopolitan “regional crossroads where students from Fuuta Toro, Waalo, Trarza, Brakna, Ngalam, Gidimakha, Khaaso, Bundu, Ferlo, Kaarta, Kajoor, Jolof, Sin, Salum, and Fuuta Jalo, all interacted” (Figure 4).Footnote 48 A polyglot, Ceerno Sakho reportedly routinely addressed students in their respective native language. A string of Senegambian locales spread across multiple colonial territories were thus connected through the interwoven paths of students, with the Dudal Galle Sakhobe acting as a node. After spending years there, students would disperse and “create their own centers in their villages and countries of origin, thus further sprawling the network of [Ceerno Sakho’s] Islamic teaching.”Footnote 49 One such student was Seidu Nuuru Taal, a grandson of Umar Taal who would go on to become a preeminent Tijani figure in French West Africa.
Through travel and study, trainees sought legitimacy, by associating themselves with specific scholars. Indeed, beyond the textual transmission of knowledge, its direct acquisition through personal contact mattered most. Study under specific teachers granted trainees the backing of a sanad (Arabic, scholarly lineage) they could now claim, hereby inscribing them into a silsila (chain of knowledge transmission). Trainees-turned-teachers also received an ijāza (license) authorizing them to, in turn, transmit teachings or prayers to trainees of their own. Zachary Wright has highlighted the centrality of personal interactions to the Tijaniyya’s spread: the “person-to-person chains of knowledge transmission,” he explains, “emphasized the internalization of learning and the formation (or recognition) of exemplary disposition.”Footnote 50 This is why itinerant study had been key to Umar Taal’s scholarly growth and repute.
As for Caam, only sparse fragments of his journey remain. By the time I interviewed his sons, much of their father’s life as a young man was foreign to them – especially the younger siblings. They thought he had likely lived in more places than the eight cities they could recall, but were not sure. They also could not name teachers he had studied under, nor provide an estimate of the time he spent on the road – though they conveyed their sense that the journey lasted many years. This was not uncommon. For instance, discussing the fuzzy chronology of Ceerno Sakho’s own scholarly journey, Sall points out that in Fuuta, disciples routinely remained with the same teacher for well over a decade – as did Seidu Nuuru Taal at the Dudal Sakhobe.Footnote 51 It is likewise plausible that Caam’s journey across West Africa lasted more than ten years. As a young man moving across a new colonial world, finding a familiar environment in places far from home would not only have been comforting, but also facilitated his migrations. By 1931, he had reached Mopti.Footnote 52 As his relatives attest and his papers show, by that time, he had full command of Arabic – in addition to his native Pulaar – using it for prayer, correspondence, record-keeping, and reading of texts and books. He never acquired French literacy. At some point in his journey, he had also earned the title Ceerno, signaling his Qur’anic knowledge and ability to teach others. Mopti made ample sense as an endpoint to his journey. Indeed, the cosmopolitan, riverine port city offered an ideal setting for sustaining his activities as a trader. It was also a key node in the Umarian archipelago.
“Venice” in the Archipelago
Mopti, nested at the confluence of the Niger and Bani rivers, had first expanded under the Maasina Caliphate, before becoming a military outpost in the Umarian state. After the colonial conquest, the French sought to harness its unique geography and exploit its waterway connection to the town of Kulikoro, the last stop on the Dakar–Niger railway stretching from the landlocked Soudan to the Atlantic coast.Footnote 53 They turned what was still a relatively small settlement into a commercial hub, through years of construction that involved mass displacements, deaths, and forced labor requisitions. As the expansion of “Soudan’s Venice” – as the French dubbed it owing to its terraqueous terrain – carried on, the city witnessed a population boom, its river harbor and dynamic commerce attracting an ever-increasing crowd. Among them, by the 1930s, was a group of about a hundred French settlers who controlled the lion’s share of the economy, and dozens of Syrian-Lebanese migrants engaged in local and long-distance trade.Footnote 54 The majority of Mopti’s population was made up of diverse clusters of West Africans from the Delta and beyond. Merchants, pilgrims, travelers, and migrants from other colonies, including Senegal, the Gold Coast, Upper Volta, and Nigeria, traveled through or settled in the city.Footnote 55 Mopti’s central market (Figure 6) opened in 1914 and quickly became a regional node. From 900 inhabitants in 1905, Mopti’s population tripled by the early 1920s, and reached 5,000 by 1940.Footnote 56
Figure 6. Mopti’s market, 1926. Chambre de commerce d’Alger, Mission Alger-Niger (novembre-décembre 1926). Rapport de M.F. Poulalion. [gallica.bnf.fr / BnF] (accessed 27 March 2025).
In the city, Caam sustained his growing family as a trader. This made sense in the context of the colonial economy, particularly of the interwar era. Colonization disrupted the economic structure of the Soudan, forcing many to seek new sources of sustenance. Because religious education no longer provided sufficient means in the new capitalist economy, “many teachers and scholars found it necessary to abandon their studies and seek their livelihoods in other ways,” often resorting to commerce.Footnote 57 Caam’s scholar-trader profile was thus common, and he likely mobilized networks of support and patronage accumulated during his travels to buttress his business. His records demonstrate that his commercial ties spread across several cities in West Africa, and he dealt in a variety of items. A letter from Bamako, Soudan, and one from Kindia, Guinea, refer to him as an “amber beads merchant.” Another letter from Labé, Guinea, mentions a package he shipped containing wallets, hats, and handcrafted wool blankets known as kassa and kosso. Footnote 58 Yet, Mopti, as a place to live and settle his family, would have held a deeper meaning to Caam than its mere status as a hub of regional commerce. Importantly, “Soudan’s Venice” was also a key node in the Umarian archipelago.
Mopti’s status as an important Tijani place derives from the city’s regional history, the Umarian jihad and its afterlives having triggered an influx of Fuutanke migrants to the Delta. Some of their descendants, such as Ceerno Bokar Taal, a Tijani shaykh in Bandiagara, became influential figures.Footnote 59 As Mopti grew into a regional hub, its importance to the Tijaniyya was also made clear through the continuous visits of Tijani leaders. On Bastille Day, 14 July 1933, Caam may have been in attendance as thousands gathered for Mopti’s new Great Mosque’s inauguration.Footnote 60 The guest of honor was Seidu Nuuru Taal, Umar Taal’s grandson and a former student of the Dudal Sakhobe. Seidu Nuuru Taal was born in the Soudan in the 1880s, but by the 1930s he was living in Senegal.Footnote 61 The French, seeking to capitalize upon the influence that descendants of Umar Taal enjoyed in the Delta, invited him to the festivities for him to deliver pro-French propaganda.Footnote 62 He did not disappoint: “You must all understand how much we must love France,” he asserted to the crowd. “[This nation] gives us freedom of religion and even helps us build our worship places.”Footnote 63 Born in the era of the Umarian expansion, Taal had witnessed the Umarian defeat during the colonial conquest. He then navigated the colonial period straddling two worlds: he derived prestige from his lineage and scholarly reputation, and secured influence from his collaboration with the French.
North African Tijani shaykhs also visited Mopti. On 19 June 1954, the secretary of the Moroccan Tijaniyya, Mahamoud Mahamoud, held a large gathering at Sévaré, Mopti’s main suburb. With Mopti’s imam in attendance, Mahamoud conducted a brief prayer, blessed the crowd, and collected donations.Footnote 64 Mahamoud’s visit appears to have been self-initiated, neither organized nor sponsored by the colonial administration. Tijani leaders sought to spread their influence in Mopti through speeches, but also through text: in November 1951 in Mopti, Mamadu Caam was granted an ijaza, or licensing document, from an Algerian Tijani shaykh, Si Benamor. The stand-alone ijaza (Figure 7) is decontextualized and disembodied among Caam’s papers, thus not providing context as to how he received it. Caam’s children are adamant that he never traveled to Algeria.Footnote 65 The document was clearly designed as an easily spreadable template. It opens by inscribing Benamor within a scholarly genealogy linking him directly to the Tijaniyya’s founder. The ijaza then attests that the recipient has “permission to recite the Tijani litany.”Footnote 66 All the text on the document is printed, save for two handwritten portions on dotted lines: the one naming Caam (Mamadu, son of Umar) as recipient, and the place and date the document was signed: Mopti, 20 November 1951. The generic, administrative form-like nature of the document hints at a wide distribution. As El Hadji Samba Diallo has found, Si Benamor’s visit to Mopti was sanctioned by French authorities. It was one stop in a journey across West Africa, for which he received an official nomination as French head of mission. As was the case with Seidu Nuuru Taal, France recognized the Tijaniyya’s archipelagic reach, and sought to tap into it; in turn, some Tijani leaders leveraged this colonial support to gain greater influence. During his trip, Si Benamor informally distributed ijazas to West African Tijanis, which “rendered possible the large-scale dissemination of the tariqa, hence its translocal north-African, and transnational northwest African, nature.”Footnote 67
Figure 7. Ijaza from Si Benamor, 1951.
The Umarian archipelago thus formed a nexus of places where translocal relationships, community, and belonging were nurtured across territorial borders, as was the case among students of the dudal Sahkobe. Mopti was an important part of this archipelago, owing to the circulation of documents, people, and ideas tied to Umar Taal and the Tijaniyya; as such, the city was connected to other places across northwest Africa. As I now turn to, Mopti also owed its status within the archipelago to the shock of the 1862 Umarian conquest of the Delta. This war had triggered a wave of Fuutanke migration to the Delta – a path my grandfather later followed. Sedimented in Mopti, this violent pre-history between the region’s Fuutanke and Maasinanke communities bore intimate afterlives in the twentieth century.
Sedimented traumas, mixed marriages
Around 1905, as a little boy growing up in the Delta, Amadou Hampâté Bâ learned of a tragic event in his family’s past. As the story goes, in the wake of Taal’s death near Bandiagara in 1864, his nephew Tijani rushed back to the area, only to find he had arrived too late to save his uncle. “Consumed by anger and grief” and seeking revenge, Tijani had all male members of aristocratic families of the fallen Maasina Caliphate executed, including forty of Bâ’s forebears.Footnote 68 Bâ was born in Bandiagara at the turn of the century, among the “century’s firstborns.” Like Caam in Fuuta, his childhood had been steeped in the afterlives of the Umarian jihad, but from the other side: that of a conquered region. There, the Fuutanke occupation remained “painfully etched in Maasinanke collective memory.”Footnote 69 If the wound was still fresh, in what ways did it manifest? Well into the twentieth century in Mopti, household, family, and intimate bonds conjured up this painful past which, as one scholar from the region emphatically put it, carried a “formidable psychological charge.”Footnote 70
Mamadu Caam’s three consecutive marriages bore echoes of the Fuutanke invasion of the Delta and resulting societal reconfigurations of the region. Upon arriving in Bandiagara towards the end of his travels, Caam had first married Maimuna Tala, a Delta-born Fuutanke woman, and the daughter of a member of Umar Taal’s army. Together, they had one daughter. Bandiagara had become a Fuutaanke stronghold in the Delta under Tijani Taal. Caam’s marriage into one of Bandiagara’s Fuutanke families likely consolidated his insertion into the community. Eventually, Tala passed away. Caam remarried, this time to a Maasinanke woman from an aristocratic family of the fallen Maasina Caliphate. However, she passed away shortly after their marriage, and Caam remarried for the last time, to his deceased wife’s cousin, my grandmother Kumba Barri (c. 1915–2013). Together, they had eight children born between 1938 and 1957, two of whom died before reaching adulthood.Footnote 71 In sum, upon settling in the Delta, Caam first married into a Fuutanke family that had carried out the conquest, then into a Maasinanke family that had been its victim. His marriages therefore continuously anchored him to the mid nineteenth-century war that had rendered his migration possible.
Historians of the Delta have portrayed the memory of this war as cloaked under layers of pain and reserved silence. “It is almost as if the descendants of Seku Amadu and El Hajj Umar were ashamed of bringing up a brotherly war that, in principle, had no justification,” Bintou Sanankoua wrote, interpreting the Fuutanke and Maasinanke’s stance around the Umarian invasion as “tacit complicity.”Footnote 72 For Ibrahima Barry, silence was a form of self-preservation: “the pain this war had caused was acutely and deeply felt in both communities … Nevertheless, each side avoided talking about it, so as to not awaken long accumulated resentments.”Footnote 73 I read the lexicon of shame, pain, and silence Sanankoua and Barry both mobilize, coupled with the making of Fuutanke-Maasinanke marriages, as evidence of continued practical memory of the Fuutanke occupation in the Delta. Unlike discursive memory, practical memory, as Rosalind Shaw puts it, constitutes “a different way of ‘remembering’ the past,” in which “violently dislocating transregional processes … are rendered internal, are (literally) incorporated into people and their social and cultural practice.”Footnote 74 Through practical memory, the past is neither erased, nor forgotten: it is just not talked about. Though Maasinanke and Fuutanke tacitly cultivated silence around their shared past, marriage served as a vessel for unspoken feelings. In fact, the idea that marriages could become receptacles for sedimented histories of violence, and fertile grounds for rebuilding life in the wake of war, had been crafted, as policy, in the wake of Umar Taal’s death. Tijani Taal pursued a policy of “mixed” Fuutanke-Maasinanke marriages, and had widowed women from each community, who had lost their husband in the war, marry men from the other community.Footnote 75 Hampâté Bâ, born in Bandiagara at the turn of the century to a Maasinanke father and a Fuutanke mother, described this as his “dual heritage.”Footnote 76
Much like the union of Bâ’s parents one generation earlier, my grandparents’ household was a manifestation of the tight yet fraught entanglements that bound the Fuutanke and Maasinanke communities in the Delta.Footnote 77 Living in Mopti, speaking different variants of the Fula language, and maintaining family relations with both Barri’s kin in the Delta, and Caam’s kin in Fuuta, would have triggered daily reminders of the proximity of this entangled past, continuously rendering it current. One of my uncles referred to their family situation as one of “metissage,” and to the different Fula variants each parent spoke – Fulfulde from Maasina and Pulaar from Fuuta – as an “explosive mix.”Footnote 78 Hawaly’s daughter recalled that while the elder Caam-Barri children, including her mother, mastered both Pulaar and Fulfulde, the younger siblings only spoke the latter.Footnote 79 Another interlocutor from the region, whom I asked about his dual lineage, deflected with a joke, a performative disavowal of his Fuutanke heritage: “I only side with my maternal line!”Footnote 80
There was therefore a clear sense of frictions generated by the two communities coming together through marriage and family. Though silence was etched in the fabric of such households, the trauma would occasionally erupt: I was told an anecdote of a Maasinanke woman whose family taunted her upon learning that her newborn, a son with her Fuutanke husband, bore the name Tijani. But more often, silence was the norm. Bâ recalls that as a child, it took pressing, insistent inquiries on his part, to be told about atrocities that happened to his paternal family at the hands of his maternal community.Footnote 81 Years later, Bâ, by then one of the foremost scholars of the Delta, authored a two-volume study of Maasina, based on oral traditions and testimonies from the region. He published the first volume, covering the caliphate’s rise and early decades, in 1955.Footnote 82 Wary of awakening tensions, he then decided to delay the publication of the second volume, covering the Fuutanke conquest and its aftermath, “so long as anyone concerned shall still be alive.”Footnote 83 To this day, Volume II has not come out.
Mopti’s standing in the Umarian archipelago, and the making of Fuutanke–Maasinanke marriages, forged constant echoes of the nineteenth-century Umarian invasion of the Delta into the twentieth century. The bond between Fuuta and the Delta was embedded and embodied in families such as Amadou Hampâté Bâ’s, or mine. Yet, marriage relationships in the Delta were not merely a crucible for processing postwar trauma and reconciliation. In my grandparents’ household, they also became a way of maintaining affective ties with Caam’s native region, while illustrating the intricacies of women’s migrations.
The Mopti clause
In 1946, Mamadu Caam received a letter from his paternal cousin Ceerno Baba Caam who lived in Semme, Fuuta. Baba Caam confirmed receipt of a package Mamadu Caam had mailed him, expressing delight at the “beautiful cloth” it contained.Footnote 84 He asked for news of the Mopti household, confirmed that in Semme, everyone was well, and expressed appreciation for Caam’s recent visit to Fuuta. He went on to stress the importance of nurturing family ties, quoting from the Qur’an: “revere the wombs through which you came.” Baba Caam concluded by enjoining his cousin to keep honoring “the victor who opened what had been closed,” a reference to the opening verse of the Ṣalāt al-Fātiḥ, a litany Tijanis recite daily.Footnote 85 The advice, prayers, and inquiries about welfare, the mention of a visit, and the circulation of letters and presents, point to an ongoing relationship. The two men cared about each other, both as kin and Tijani disciples, and maintained a bond that sustained over decades. “My dear friend, I’ve arrived safely” wrote Bubu Sy, another Fuutanke correspondent, in a 1962 letter to my grandfather, presumably upon returning to Fuuta from a stay in Mopti. “Baba Caam received your letter, [he’s] very happy.”Footnote 86 Nearly a decade later, in 1971, Baba Caam would travel from Semme to Mopti to pay his respects following my grandfather’s passing. In the intervening years, at least two of Caam and Barri’s oldest children, Hawaly and Hamadou, had traveled the opposite way, from Mopti to Semme, to spend time living there in their teens.Footnote 87 By nurturing such ties with his birth home, Mamadu Caam rendered his household into a knot, a liminal space connecting the Senegalese Fuuta and the Soudanese Delta. The affective geographies he wove, entwining the two regions through layers of circulations, also shaped his daughter’s mobilities and intimate life.
On 8 February 1962, in Mopti, Caam and four witnesses sealed the terms of the upcoming marriage of his daughter Hawaly (1938–2009). The contract stipulated two clauses that her future husband, a Fuutanke migrant who had settled in Mopti, agreed upon. First, he would never require Hawaly to travel with him, should he leave Mopti. Second, he would pay the bridewealth amount in two installments. While the second clause is tersely stated in the contract’s concluding lines, the first one is centered, occupying the lion’s share of the one-page manuscript. Its phrasing and tone are unequivocal, commanding attention. Hawaly would stay in Mopti no matter where her husband traveled, and that was not negotiable: “having both agreed upon this condition,” Caam wrote, “I granted him my daughter’s hand in marriage.” In other words, Hawaly’s betrothed accepted that the only possible place where they could live together as a couple, would be near her family. Yet in the Delta and broader Sahel region, women generally entered virilocal marriages, their residence shifting as they got married and left their family for their husband’s.Footnote 88 In 1942, waves of Fulbe women migrating to Guinea from Kenieba, in the Soudan, to marry there, alarmed a colonial administrator to the extent that he instituted a ban on women’s migrations.Footnote 89 As such, the clause sealing Hawaly’s residence in Mopti is remarkable. Who decided on it?
The document is written in the first person in Caam’s voice, making it tempting to attribute the decision to him. Yet as social histories of Mali show, the absence of women’s explicit input is no reliable indication of their exclusion from decision-making. It is plausible that my aunt persuaded her parents to include the clause, or that my grandmother instructed her husband to do so.Footnote 90 Numerous court cases from early colonial Soudan through independent Mali show future brides asserting their desires in marriage.Footnote 91 Likewise, mothers were invested and heavily involved in shaping the modalities of their daughters’ marriages.Footnote 92 An earlier testimony illustrates both wives’ and mothers’ agency, and anxieties around marriage migrations: around 1934, Mariama Fulani traveled with her husband Belali Wangara from Mopti to Kumasi, in the Gold Coast, but after five years, she left him. In a complaint Belali addressed to the Asantehene and district commissioner, he insisted that he had obtained Mariama’s hand “from her parents,” and traveled to the Gold Coast with her “with the consent of her parents.”Footnote 93 Belali further stated that her father had given him “strict orders” never to travel back to Mopti without her.Footnote 94 Belali’s emphasis on both parents’ involvement – as opposed to merely the father – and Mariama’s decision to leave, are instructive. Like in Mariama and Belali’s case, my grandmother, my aunt, or both, may have been instrumental in shaping the modalities of migrations and residence that would govern my aunt’s marriage.
Coincidentally, the early days of February 1962 were not merely significant to the making of Hawaly’s marriage; it was a crucial time for marriage in Mali. Five days before the contract’s sealing, hundreds of kilometers away in Bamako, representatives at the national assembly had codified marriage into law. The 1962 Malian family code regulated bridewealth and enshrined mandatory consent for the couple, among other provisions.Footnote 95 In the aftermath of the code’s adoption, singer Tata Kouyaté was propelled to celebrity. Her single “Bambo,” celebrating the new law and putative end of coerced marriage for women, became a popular hit.Footnote 96 Historians of Mali have shown how invested the state was in regulating marriage, and how deeply tied marriage and gender were to colonial authority, postcolonial state-making, and nationalism.Footnote 97 As a corollary, Malian women and men learned to navigate rules governing three distinct “marriage scripts” – customary, religious, and state-sponsored – and seized them to shape their own marriage outcomes, or that of their children.Footnote 98
Yet, the household Hawaly grew up in invites a different reading of her contract, rooted in Mopti’s deeper past, as opposed to state-centered political decisions in Bamako. Like my grandfather, Hawaly’s betrothed was originally from Fuuta; he had settled in Mopti one generation after Caam. Hawaly’s marriage effectively represented a strengthening of the affective geographies my grandfather had mapped. Moreover, for Caam, his son-in-law and daughter’s future migrations were not a mere possibility; they were a given that needed to be anticipated. In both the choice of husband and the anticipation of migrations, two logics that had shaped my grandparents’ household were on display. The first was that of archipelagic Umarian routes and networks that facilitated translocal mobility, and the second, the affective ties that Caam forged with his native Fuuta.
The latter is especially noteworthy given wider national politics ongoing at the time of Hawaly’s marriage. In the midst of decolonization in 1959, the French Soudan and Senegal had formed the Mali Federation. Political divergences between Modibo Keita and Léopold Sédar Senghor’s governments soon eroded the partnership, and the federation collapsed in August 1960. In station towns along the railway connecting the two countries, decisions made in Bamako and Dakar broke family and social ties: thousands had to move across what had become an international border overnight.Footnote 99 In contrast, Hawaly’s marriage tells a different story. The logics that shaped it were not rooted in the politics of decolonization and nation-state partitions. Instead, they reflected connections stemming from the Delta and Fuuta’s entangled pasts and, as such, they endured. Still, this leaves one question unanswered. Despite her family’s ties to Fuuta, the contract is adamant that Hawaly would not follow her husband there, “should he wish to visit his hometown.” Why was it so important that Hawaly stay near her parents should her husband travel to Fuuta? After all, she had previously lived there, and the region was arguably also home to her.
While I have yet to reach a definitive answer, a revelation that came up late in my research process throws light on this issue, while serving as a reminder of potential pitfalls of intimate history as method. When I first encountered Hawaly’s contract, it occurred to me that at twenty-four years old, my aunt was an old bride.Footnote 100 Fixated as I was on the Mopti clause, I brushed this oddity aside. Yet, Hawaly’s age should have been a clear giveaway: this was not her first marriage. As came up in discussions with family members, long after I began my first interviews for this project, Hawaly had been married in Fuuta, when she lived there in her youth. Ultimately, that marriage had “not worked out,” as the family elusively puts it, and she returned to Mopti. I should have lingered on the question of her age longer, and asked more pointed questions sooner. Perhaps my blind spots as a niece blurred my thought process as a historian: it did not occur to me that I could have been unaware of such a big part of her life – after all, unlike my grandfather, I knew and had a relationship with my aunt.
I still know nothing about this first marriage, or the reasons for its ending. While it intrigues me, I am also wary of overinterpreting it. Indeed, divorces were common among Fulbe and other pastoral communities in the Delta and the Sahel, and distance between the couple’s residence and the woman’s family seems to have been a common factor leading to it.Footnote 101 Did a painful experience trigger Hawaly, her parents, or both, to privilege proximity to her birth home in her second marriage? Did Hawaly wish to stay close to the younger siblings she had partially raised in Mopti? Did my grandmother, having lost two children, want to keep her eldest and only daughter by her side? These questions, and others, are ongoing. Still, whatever the reason for the Mopti clause may have been, Hawaly’s first and second marriage both featured migration as a central concern. They also both reinforced, in different ways, the ties that bound my grandparents’ Mopti household to my grandfather’s native Fuuta. A century after Taal’s 1862 conquest of the Delta, the archipelagic geographies and the memory his jihad birthed kept reverberating in my aunt Hawaly’s intimate life, marriages, and migrations.
Conclusion
This article has suggested an intimate approach to reading a marriage contract and other papers that belonged to my paternal grandfather Mamadu Caam. The resulting examination of his trajectory from the Senegalese Fuuta to the Soudanese Delta, and of the household he built with my Delta-born grandmother in Mopti, sheds light on the history of translocal community and belonging, as well as trauma and rebuilding in the wake of war, in the Sahel. My grandfather, like other Umarian Tijanis living under the French empire, curated his mobility practices and intimate relationships to connect distant epochs and lands. His youth itinerancy across key Tijani cities was rendered possible by an Umarian archipelago, which expanded across West Africa and trumped twentieth-century political borders and geographies. In my grandparents’ household, the wound of the Umarian invasion of the Delta was seldom explicitly talked about. But the entanglements the conflict had fostered between the two communities was intimately reasserted in day-to-day life, through sedimented memories and marriage choices.
Acknowledgements
I sincerely thank colleagues and seminar participants who provided comments on versions of this paper at New York University, Johns Hopkins University, Stanford University, Rutgers University, the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, and Cheikh Anta Diop University. I am especially grateful to Wendell Marsh, Farah El-Sharif, and David Glovsky for careful readings and inputs. The feedback from two anonymous reviewers greatly improved this piece. My gratitude goes foremost to my family members for their time, generosity, and willingness to be part of this process. I dedicate this article to the memory of Hawaly Thiam (1938–2009) and Hamadou Thiam (1940–2025).
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