Introduction
Chieftaincy, an old form of governance among African States such as Ghana (Dankwa et al. Reference Dankwa, Kumi, Owulah and Eshun2021), is ingrained in the social fabric of the people (Tonah Reference Tonah2012) and is not readily eradicated. The institution of chieftaincy serves as the embodiment of the cultural heritage of the people, catalyst of change and agent of development. Eminent chiefs play an important role in the administration of local government by maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, settling disputes and managing socio-economic development (Kwame Reference Kwame2012). Regardless of the primacy of the chieftaincy institution in Ghana, the perceived peace and security in the country are undermined by succession violence and land disputes (Marfo, Musah, and Mohammed Reference Marfo, Musah and Mohammed2022b). The Ga Mantse succession dispute, the Anlo chieftaincy conflict, the Tuobodom chieftaincy conflict, Bimbilla chieftaincy affairs, the Yendi succession conflict, the Mamprusi–Kusasi intra-ethnic conflict, the Tano Boase incident, the Wa intra-gate conflict and the Tafo chieftaincy in Kumasi have been cited in scholarly works as among the recent destructive and challenging chieftaincy conflicts in Ghana (Anamzoya and Tonah Reference Anamzoya and Tonah2012; Awedoba Reference Awedoba2009; Boafo-Arthur Reference Boafo-Arthur, Odotei and Awedoba2006; Kendie and Bukari Reference Kendie and Bukari2012; Prah and Yeboah Reference Prah and Yeboah2011; Schildkrout Reference Schildkrout, Odotei and Awedoba2006; Tonah Reference Tonah2007).
These conflicts are construed as low intensity (Kendie and Bukari Reference Kendie and Bukari2012; Marfo, Bolaji, and Tseer Reference Marfo, Bolaji and Tseer2022a); however, it is noted that they pose threat to the human security of the nation and, particularly, destabilize local-level development in conflict-prone areas. Human security in this circumstance is understood as the vital core that makes us human (Commission on Human Security 2003), including economic security, food security, health security, environmental security and personal security (United Nations Development Program 1994).
A number of lives and property have been consumed in these conflicts. For instance, the intra-chieftaincy succession between the Abudu and the Andani royal gates led to the death of the overlord Ya Na Yakubu Andani and 28 others during three days of intensive violent clashes in Yendi (Wuaku Commission 2002). More than 600 people were reported to have died in the deadly 1994 conflict between the Konkombas and the Nanumbas who were deeply enmeshed in a struggle for supreme chiefships and land (Gasu Reference Gasu2020). Tonah (Reference Tonah2007) wrote that the clashes between the Nawuri and the Gonja at Kpandai in 1991 led to the death of 78 persons. The Awedoba (Reference Awedoba, Odotei and Awedoba2006) study found that the prolonged violent confrontations between the Kusasi and Mamprusi ethnic groups in Bawku, which is grounded in chieftaincy and land ownership, have undermined the peaceful atmosphere at Bawku and its enclave. Kufour (Reference Kufour, Odotei and Awedoba2006) noted that these long and costly succession conflicts have depleted the resources of communities and rendered them leaderless at the time when they need leaders.
Understanding how these conflicts affect the vital core of people will help galvanize collective efforts to address them, targeting the promotion of robust security and development architecture. According to Marfo et al. (Reference Marfo, Bolaji and Tseer2022a), a security indicator encompasses the lack of criminal attacks, the protection of lives and properties, and the fostering of mutual trust and reverence for human self-esteem. A United Nations Development Program (1994) report has previously noted that the essential essence of a society extends beyond mere military threats to national sovereignty. It encompasses factors such as the absence of violent conflicts, advocacy for human rights, effective governance, accessibility to education and healthcare, realization of individual potentials, poverty reduction, economic growth and the preservation of a sustainable natural environment.
Bimbilla, the study community, over the years has witnessed varying competition for traditional political power (chieftaincy) involving members of the Gbuhumayilli family (one of the royal gates), robbing the people of their needed peace and security (Awedoba Reference Awedoba, Odotei and Awedoba2006). As the realistic conflict theory posits, conflict involving groups stems from competition for valuable scarce resources including power, wealth, natural resources, territory and food (Forsyth Reference Forsyth1999; LeVine and Campbell Reference LeVine and Campbell1972). LeVine and Campbell (Reference LeVine and Campbell1972) wrote that, naturally, groups would prefer to be “haves” rather than “have-nots”; therefore, they take steps to achieve the desired resources and prevent others from reaching their goals. This could explain why competition among the members of the Gbuhumayilli royal gates has degenerated into violent encounters which undermine any sense of food security in the study area.
The literature indicates that the recurrent clashes among the members of the Gbuhumayilli royal gate that took place on Thursday 9 July 2015 between a group of butchers and the supporters of the regent (caretaker chief) over the butchers’ refusal to acknowledge the regent’s authority by following the long-standing custom of giving the regent his share of meat led to the death of 19 people in Bimbilla (GhanaWeb Regional News 2023). Much has been said about the Bimbilla chieftaincy conflict. Competing claims among some members of one of the royal gates (Gbuhumayilli) to the Nanum Skin have been cited as the principal causal factor of the conflicts (Anamzoya and Tonah Reference Anamzoya and Tonah2012; Awedoba Reference Awedoba, Odotei and Awedoba2006). These studies, though helpful, could not comprehensively interrogate as to how these conflicts undermine food security in the context of hunger, famine and sudden rise in prices. Also, methodologically, the existing studies are limited to descriptive statistics in terms of data analysis and could not examine the otherwise association between these conflicts and food security using the perspectives of famine, hunger and sudden rise in food prices. This makes the current study very necessary. In their study on the farmer–herder conflict in Asante Akyem Agogo, located in the Ashanti Region of Ghana, Marfo et al. (Reference Marfo, Bolaji and Tseer2022a) observed that the human security implications of violent conflicts remain largely silent and incalculable. Destructive conflicts are thus inimical to development, as agricultural operations, market accessibility and food supply chains are disrupted.
Mbowura’s (Reference Mbowura2014) research on the Nawuri and Gonja conflict in Kpandai, Ghana showed that the three war phases broke out during the height of the farming season, just as new farms were being prepared, making it impossible to harvest food crops and leaving many of the harvests on the farmland to rot. The picture from this finding is that destructive chieftaincy conflicts are inimical to any creative approach to the maintenance and achievement of food security. Communities whose livelihood depends on agricultural (farming) products either abandon their products in the field or restrain from cultivating the land due to fear of death. This may also lead to various coping strategies, which nonetheless may affect the health security of the people.
A 2014 Africa Growth Initiative (AGI) analysis (Pugliese Reference Pugliese2014) of the conflicts involving Mali and Nigeria supported this claim. According to the projection, agricultural output decreased annually by an average of 12.3% during times of conflict. Furthermore, the AGI study showed the impact of violence on crop output; for example, rice production in 2012 showed a 43% drop in real yield when compared to 2011 levels. The AGI findings also showed that the decrease in crop output was caused by a decrease in labour availability because farmers and farm labourers were afraid of attacks on their properties or while travelling to them, which resulted in insufficient and inappropriate time for weeding and harvesting. The AGI concluded that the violence in Mali and Nigeria affected food crops due to lower human mobility, decreased market and input access, increased asset theft, and higher input and product pricing.
A study by Kendie and Bukari (Reference Kendie and Bukari2012) found that the Bawku inter-ethnic conflict in Ghana grounded in chieftaincy affected the food situation in the conflict environment. The study revealed that many farmers who previously employed “cheap” labour on their fields were unable to do so due to the insecurity and violence that had made many people reluctant to travel to Bawku for employment. They therefore concluded that the protracted conflict in Bawku has a debilitating effect on food crop production, livestock rearing, marketing of farm produce and the provision of agricultural services.
The nexus between violent conflict and food security is, arguably, complicated and attributed to a number of factors including climate change and natural hazards such as floods, pest infestation and destructive agricultural practices. Nonetheless, violent conflicts have been identified as the main driver of hunger in most of the world’s food crises as witnessed in Sudan, Syria, Yemen and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, pushing food and nutrition insecurity to historic levels (World Food Program 2022). The World Food Program USA (2017) highlighted that a record number of people worldwide face displacement due to conflict, extreme weather and natural disasters. Over 65 million individuals have been displaced by war and persecution, straining the resources of low- and middle-income host countries. The report noted a disturbing trend, with the number of hungry people increasing for the first time in over a decade, rising from 777 million in 2015 to 815 million in 2016. Nearly 60% of these undernourished individuals reside in conflict-affected nations, where warfare disrupts food systems and exacerbates hunger.
António Guterres, Secretary-General of the United Nations, underscored in his foreword to the Sixth Global Report on Food Crises (Food and Agriculture Association of the United Nations 2022) that humanity is confronting hunger on an unprecedented scale, with millions of lives and livelihoods hanging in the balance. He emphasized the profound impact of conflicts such as the war in Ukraine, which exacerbates a crisis spanning food, energy and finance. The report identifies ongoing food crises driven by interconnected factors that mutually reinforce each other, with conflict and insecurity standing out as the primary drivers. The United Nations (2023) Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food Report highlighted that conflict and violence are the leading causes of hunger and famine, posing significant obstacles to achieving the right to food. The report pointed out a stark increase in food insecurity, projecting around 345 million people to be food insecure in 2023, more than double the number recorded in 2020.
The empirical literature as discussed has highlighted how violent conflicts undermine food security of people across the globe. In the context of Ghana, an analysis beyond what is widely seen as obvious is required in order to comprehend the food security costs of chieftaincy conflicts.
Methodology
Research Design
The study utilized a convergent mixed-methods design, as advocated by Creswell and Creswell (Reference Creswell and Creswell2018), enabling simultaneous collection of quantitative and qualitative data for a comprehensive analysis of the research problem. This approach facilitated the synthesis of information and yielded a holistic understanding of the link between chieftaincy conflicts and food security amidst issues of hunger, famine and sudden price increases in the study area.
Profile of the Study Locality
Bimbilla is the capital of Nanumba North District which was established by Legislative Instrument 1754 in 2004. The district encompasses 1,986 square kilometres (Majeed, Gyimah, and Sadik Reference Majeed, Gyimah, Sadik and Adeola2023). Bimbilla is renowned as one of the Nanumba North district’s business pivots where local agricultural products, including food, cattle and poultry, as well as manufactured goods, are exchanged (Majeed et al. Reference Majeed, Gyimah, Sadik and Adeola2023). The disastrous chieftaincy clashes that have plagued the community for years pose severe threats to the community’s agricultural and commercial importance. This calls for concerted efforts to salvage the community from this chaotic situation.
Sampling and Sample Size
Violent conflicts affect a broad spectrum of people. However, in agrarian communities, people who engage in farming and livestock rearing are the worst affected (Marfo, Musah, and Abukari Reference Marfo, Musah and Abukari2019). To align with the study’s objectives and ensure triangulation, a gender-sensitive sample was purposefully selected from diverse stakeholder groups including chiefs, opinion leaders, health officials, butchers, security agents, youth groups, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, and farmer- and livestock-based associations. Apart from the farmer- and livestock-based association respondents, all the other 50 respondents were purposely selected. The selection of the 50 respondents was informed by the principle of saturation, a generally suggested gauge for determining an adequate sample size using the purposive sampling technique (Merriam Reference Merriam2009). This is commonly interpreted as reaching a redundancy point of information where new information generated adds no new insight into the study.
A random sampling technique was employed to select 341 respondents from 12 farmer- and livestock-based associations as registered by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2023) for the Nanumba North District, Bimbilla. According to this report, Bimbilla had a total population of 467 registered farmers as well as 185 livestock farmers. Using Yamane’s 1967 sample size determination approach (cited in Israel Reference Israel2009), 215 farmers and 126 livestock farmers were selected from the established sample frame. After determining the required number of respondents, a proportionate sampling strategy was employed to select respondents from both male and female members of the two associations. The study utilized Yamane’s (1967:886) sample size formula (cited in Israel Reference Israel2009) to determine the following sample sizes:
$n = N/[1 + N(e)^2]\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad $
For farmers, N = sample frame (467)
Male farmers, N = 250
Female farmers, N = 217
n = sample or sample size
e = error margin (0.05)
n = 467/[1 + 467(0.05)2]
Total respondents: farmers (n) = 215
Male respondents: farmers (n) = (250/467) x 215 = 115
Female respondents: farmers (n) = (217/467) x 215 = 100
For livestock farmers, N = sample frame (185)
Male livestock farmers, N = 150
Female livestock farmers, N = 35
n = sample or sample size
e = error margin (0.05)
n = 185/[1 + 185(0.05)2]
Total respondents: livestock farmers (n) = 126
Male respondents: livestock farmers (n) = (150/185) x 126 = 102
Female respondents: livestock farmers (n) = (35/185) x 126 = 24
The study thus used a combined sample size of 391 respondents drawn from the different backgrounds (50 using the purposive sampling technique + 215 farmers + 126 livestock farmers), comprising 254 males and 137 females. This ensured that the views of all potential targeted respondents were properly catered for. Tables 1 and 2 show summaries of the respondents.
Table 1. Summary of respondents selected purposely
Source: Field study, Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2023).
Table 2. Randomly selected respondents from farmer-based and livestock associations in Bimbilla
Source: Field study, Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2023).
Data Sources and Data Collection Methods
The study used, principally, primary sources of information. This was complemented by secondary sources of information generated through the literature including official reports and documents, websites and textbooks. This helped the researchers to overcome the drawbacks of depending solely on one source and also to enrich the data through complementarity of the various sources of information.
An interview guide and checklists were used as primary tools to generate qualitative data. In-depth interviews were conducted by the researchers with 33 respondents as well as the eight representatives of the Sokasheli Youth Group and the eight members of the leadership from the Bormanga Women Association (BWA). The flexibility of the questions enabled the researchers to probe questions for further clarification. This approach allowed the respondents to express themselves freely and yielded rich information. To speed up the process without necessarily interrupting with the information generated, a recording device was used with the consent of the respondents.
The researchers organized focus group discussions with the Sokasheli Youth Group and the BWA with eight discussants each, respectively. This method allowed the respondents to freely discuss the various issues slated on the checklist. The process also ensured that there was no proposition from any member without substantiation. The questions were well distributed to avoid the process being dominated by a few discussants. This also ensured that the group members fairly participated in the discussions. The researchers were able to swiftly gather rich diverse information within a shortest possible time (Stolper et al. Reference Stolper, Boonen, Schut and Varkevisser2019). With the participants’ permission, audio recordings of the discussions with the two groups were made. Additionally, notes were made, and the accuracy of the material was later confirmed by cross-referencing them with the recorded data. The various approaches used in gathering primary data enabled the researchers to have a comprehensive view about how chieftaincy conflicts affect food security in Bimbilla.
Questionnaires were personally administered by the researchers to a total of 341 farmer- and livestock-based respondents with the assistance of three field assistants, who were first and foremost trained in questionnaire administration processes and ethics. The researchers were mindful of the gender dynamics, the beliefs and cultural practices of the respondents. In all, 333 out of the 341 questionnaires were retrieved, representing a resounding response rate of 98%. The study thus made use of an actual combined sample size of 383 out of the intended 391 (50 using the purposive sampling technique + 215 farmers + 126 livestock farmers) who were initially considered, comprising 212 males and 121 females.
To ensure validity and reliability, the questionnaire instruments were pre-tested in Nakpayili, a community in Nanumba South District which shares similar characteristics with the study area. This process enabled the researchers to shape the instruments before administering them to the actual selected respondents.
Data Analysis
Descriptive and inferential statistical techniques, including percentages, means and standard deviations (SDs), were used to analyse quantitative generated data. This process was facilitated by a five-point Likert scale with the tags: “very high” (5); “high” (4); “low” (3); “very low” (2); and “never” (1). Qualitative data, on the other hand, were analysed through the application of inductive thematic analysis. Recorded data were first transcribed and edited and then categorized on the basis of the research objectives. For the purposes of anonymity and confidentiality of information as critical ethical issues in social research, labels were used for the various participants. The key informants were tagged as K1–K33, members of the leadership from the BWA were labelled as BWA1–BWA8, while those of the Sonkasheli Youth Group (SYG) were branded as SYG1–SYG8.
Ethical Consideration
The researchers were sensitive to the respondents’ needs and concerns in terms of harm, permission, privacy and data secrecy. To participate in this study, the respondents had to give their consent. The goal of the study was adequately disclosed to the respondents. Additionally, participants were guaranteed access to the study’s feedback in case they had any questions answered. Furthermore, the researchers did not directly link any respondent to any sensitive statements in order to protect the respondents’ safety. This explains why codes were used instead of the actual names.
Results
To be able to assess the effects of the chieftaincy conflicts on food security, three independent variables – hunger, famine and sudden rise in prices – were considered on the basis of information generated from the literature. A Likert scale was applied and an SD was run for the responses. Also, a regression analysis was run to ascertain the association between the chieftaincy conflicts and the three dependent variables. The outcomes are presented in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3. Means and standard deviations of respondents’ views on chieftaincy conflicts and food security in Bimbilla (n =333) a
Source: Fieldwork, Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2023).
a Scale = 5 (very high); 4 (high); 3 (low); 2 (very low); 1 (never).
Table 4. Results of linear multiple regression on chieftaincy conflicts and food security in Bimbilla
Source: Fieldwork, Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2023).
The scale ranges from 0.00 to 3.00, denoting respondents’ disagreement regarding chieftaincy conflicts and food security, while 3.01 to 5.00 indicates respondents’ agreement on these issues. As presented in Table 3, the mean of means (3.07, SD = 1.29) signifies a prevailing agreement among respondents regarding the notion that issues such as hunger, farming and sudden rise in food prices could occasion due to chieftaincy conflicts. With an average SD of 1.29, the researchers observe a moderate dispersion of responses, highlighting the variability among respondents’ viewpoints around the mean of 1.29. The current study’s discoveries align with the research conducted by Messer (Reference Messer2009), pinpointing that chieftaincy conflicts could play a role in elements including hunger, famine and abrupt surges in food prices. These factors invariably have the potential to escalate into social unrest and violence. According to the World Food Program (2022), conflict stands out as the primary catalyst of hunger in the food crises witnessed in Sudan, Syria, Yemen and the Democratic Republic of the Congo among others, resulting in food and nutrition insecurity at varying levels. The United Nations (2023) Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food Report emphasized that conflict and violence are the leading causes of hunger and famine, contributing to an estimated 345 million people facing food insecurity in 2023, more than double the number from 2020.
The competition for control over essential food production resources, including land and water, can also catalyse conflict. In Ethiopia, the prevalence of conflict was found to have intertwined with factors such as periodic drought, inadequate infrastructure, and traditional farming practices, which all contributed to food insecurity (Gatdet Reference Gatdet2021). This demonstrates the complex interplay between violent conflicts and food security. Tackling these challenges necessitates a comprehensive strategy encompassing diverse initiatives including fostering of non-farm activities, promoting family-based economic models, enhancing irrigation practices and refining conflict management techniques (Gatdet Reference Gatdet2021).
The study further probed the potential influence of chieftaincy conflicts on food security. The hypothesis posited that chieftaincy conflicts could positively engender hunger, famine and sudden rises in food prices. To assess this hypothesis, a linear multiple regression analysis was employed.
Discussion
The outcomes of the study unveiled that the three dependent variables collectively explain 4.4% of the variation in chieftaincy conflicts (F (14.927) = 6.080, p < 0.001). A closer examination of the individual effects revealed that the chieftaincy conflicts significantly impacted hunger (β = –0.152, t = –2.807, p = 0.005) and famine (β = 0.188, t = 3.443, p = 0.001). Conversely, a sudden increase in food prices (β = 0.006, t = 0.113, p = 0.910) stood as the only food security factor which is not affected substantially by chieftaincy conflicts in the study locality. The findings underscore a noteworthy positive relationship (p = 0.001 and p = 0.005), emphasizing that hunger and famine are much more substantially influenced than other food security factors.
The observation in this context aligns with research which found hunger and farming as among various outcomes which are substantially and directly driven by chieftaincy conflicts (Adariku, Lagi, and Muhammed Reference Adariku, Lagi and Muhammed2023; Matimbwa and Mwalimu Reference Matimbwa and Mwalimu2019). Both studies emphasize the impact of farming-related issues, such as encroachment on farmlands and crop destruction, in escalating conflicts between farmers and pastoralists. Extending this discourse to chieftaincy conflicts, Agyeman (Reference Agyeman2021) highpoints the developmental implications, including hunger and infrastructural destruction. Collectively, these studies suggest that addressing chieftaincy conflicts and associated land disputes could effectively alleviate hunger and poverty, especially in regions with predominantly agricultural production.
Buttressing the above; an opinion leader (K4) in an interview indicated:
The conflict affected the people in accessing the agricultural produce, this is because farmers found it difficult to transport their produce to the various market centres where they are needed for exportation and consumption. It becomes difficult to access them by both consumers and traders.
It was revealed by a key informant that during the conflict, people were not able to do active business to enable them to earn some income to buy farm inputs such as fertilizers, seeds, chemicals for spraying and herbicides, etc. This, according to him, has had a long-term ripple effect on the farming pattern and income cycle. Participants in a focus group discussion remarked, respectively:
In this area, conflict often leads to destructive actions like burning farms and crops. Many here fear for their lives and livelihoods, preferring hunger over risking their safety in the fields. It seems we may soon rely on neighbouring villages for food, as farming becomes increasingly perilous with deliberate sabotage and mystical interference. Economic ventures here are seen as too risky without guaranteed returns (SYG2 remark, 2023).
Currently, there is an unusual yam shortage in the market due to widespread fear of deliberate farm fires. Previously, we enjoyed abundant yam year-round and even exported to other regions, but now everyone prefers to buy rather than to engage in wasteful farming activities. We used to have abundant yam here but that is not the case now (BWA6 remark, 2023).
Due to these destructive conflicts, businesses have slowed down significantly as we struggle to secure desired products from our suppliers. When we place orders, they only provide items they believe can be paid for promptly. They are cautious about tying up their capital in this perceived conflict-prone area, and we often lack the immediate cash to pay in full upfront. Now the trust is no longer there. Initially, this arrangement was beneficial, and at times we even traded goods like yam instead of cash. This is not working anymore which has worsened our feeding predicaments (BWA8 remark, 2023).
The emerging theme is that violent conflict undermines the supply chain, affecting various categories in the process especially those in the immediate conflict environment. Mbowura’s (Reference Mbowura2014) study has previously revealed a similar development with regard to the conflict between the Nawuri and the Gonja in Kpandai. His study found that the onset of the conflicts coincided with the farming season, meaning that food crops could not be harvested and that many of the harvests were left on the farms to rot. The 2014 AGI study (Pugliese Reference Pugliese2014) on conflicts in Mali and Nigeria found that the conflicts profoundly decreased agricultural productivity by an average of 12.3% annually. It further revealed the impact of violence on rice production, with a 43% drop in real yield in 2012 when compared to 2011 levels. A study on the Bawku conflict by Aganah (Reference Aganah2008) similarly found that farmers who cultivate perishable goods like onions and watermelons incur significant losses during the onset of violence in the municipality. The Bawku chieftaincy conflicts also had a negative impact on commerce, agriculture, revenue generation, lives and property, and infrastructure development (Aganah Reference Aganah2008).
The evolving depiction is that violent conflicts affect both the immediate community members as well as traders outside the community due to accessibility challenges. This invariably affects the market chain which in turn may worsen the food security situation in the immediate conflict environment, setting in motion a cycle of economic and social challenges.
Conclusion
This study examined how the chieftaincy conflicts in Bimbilla affected the food security situation of the people. The study found that the Bimbilla chieftaincy conflicts greatly undermined the food security situation, a vital core of the people. The study found that chieftaincy has various differential and significant impacts on food security, namely hunger, famine and sudden rises in food prices, with a significantly positive impact on hunger (β = –0.152, t = –2.807, p = 0.005) and famine (β = 0.188, t = 3.443, p = 0.001). These implications resonate well with the realistic conflict theory. The realistic conflict theory suggests that conflicts between groups emerge when they compete for scarce resources like land, power or wealth, which invariably has various consequences. The competition for traditional political power in the study locality has undermined the source of livelihood of the people and should be recognized as a major threat to human security. Resolving these complex challenges therefore necessitates a comprehensive approach that integrates conflict resolution strategies, economic revitalization initiatives and interventions aimed at ensuring food sustainability. Such holistic efforts are crucial to restoring stability, promoting wellbeing and fostering enduring human security in the affected area.
Recommendation
It is recommended that the Bimbilla Municipal Assembly in collaboration with non-governmental organizations should consider providing agricultural support including seeds, tools and training to revitalize farming activities disrupted by the conflict. Similarly, the livestock farmers should be supported by providing them with a subsidized stock of livestock to enable them to have a sustainable source of living. If the system does not provide opportunities for gainful employment, the youth may fall prey to conflict entrepreneurs and take up arms at the least provocation.
In restoring food security in the aftermath of the violent clashes in Bimbilla, the Northern Regional House of Chiefs in collaboration with the Northern Region Peace Council should make frantic efforts to address all issues surrounding the Bimbilla chieftaincy conflicts in a more productive manner to help promote the food security situation in the study locality.
Acknowledgements
The researchers acknowledge the contributions of all the respondents, which made it possible to produce this research outcome.
Competing interests
The researchers have not declared any conflict of interest.
Samuel Marfo (PhD) serves as a Professor of Conflict Resolution at SD Dombo University of Business and Integrated Development Studies in Ghana, and has specialized in peace, security and conflict resolution for over three decades. His research interests encompass crime control, peacebuilding, road safety, democratic consolidation and food security.
Mohammed Hamza (PhD candidate) is a lecturer in Conflict Resolution and Peace Studies at the University for Development Studies in Ghana. With a focus on ethnic and chieftaincy conflict resolution and peace education, he has dedicated more than five years to these fields.
John Yaw Akparep (PhD) is a professor specializing in Organizational Conflict Management, bringing over 10 years of practical experience to his role. His research interests include conflict dynamics in tertiary institutions, institutional politics, inter-ethnic conflict, food security and the sustainability of microfinance institutions.
