Hostname: page-component-cb9f654ff-mwwwr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-09-06T15:13:36.566Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Screening for dementia: a review of self- and informant-assessment instruments

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 February 2008

Nicolas Cherbuin ,
Kaarin J. Anstey  and
Darren M. Lipnicki
Nicolas Cherbuin*
Affiliation:
Centre for Mental Health Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
Kaarin J. Anstey
Affiliation:
Centre for Mental Health Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
Darren M. Lipnicki
Affiliation:
Centre for Mental Health Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
*
Correspondence should be addressed to: Nicolas Cherbuin, Centre for Mental Health Research, Building 63, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia. Phone: +612 61253858; Fax: +612 61250733. Email: nicolas.cherbuin@anu.edu.au.
Get access

Abstract

Background: The objective of this study was to review available dementia screening instruments that could be recommended for self-administration, particularly in electronic format. Owing to the gradual loss of insight associated with the progression of dementia, a broad definition of self-administration including self-administration by concerned informants (family, friends, carers) was used.

Method: A systematic search of PubMed, PsychINFO, and the Cochrane Library Database was conducted. Only available full-text articles about dementia screening instruments written in English were included. Articles reporting on instruments used in a non-English context were excluded unless a validated English version of the instrument was available. Included instruments were assessed against the precise criteria and characteristics of the Mini-mental State Examination (MMSE), the most widely used screening instrument.

Results: The Concord Informant Dementia Scale (CIDS) and the Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE) were the only instruments meeting all selection criteria. The Memory Impairment Screen (MIS) also met the criteria, although it lacks validation for self-administration. No instrument has been validated for self-administration in electronic format.

Conclusions: It is recommended that the MIS, the CIDS and the IQCODE be validated for self-administration in electronic format.

Keywords

dementiamild cognitive impairmentscreeningself assessmentinformant

Information

Type
Review Article
Information
International Psychogeriatrics , Volume 20 , Issue 3 , June 2008 , pp. 431 - 458
Copyright
Copyright © International Psychogeriatric Association 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Access Economics (2005). Dementia Estimates and Projections: Australian States and Territories. A Report for Alzheimer's Australia. Canberra: Access Economics.Google Scholar
AIHW (2007). Dementia in Australia: National Data Analysis and Development. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.Google Scholar
Beeri, M. S., Werner, P., Davidson, M., Schmidler, J. and Silverman, J. (2003). Validation of the modified telephone interview for cognitive status (TICS-m) in Hebrew. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18, 381–386.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bland, R. C. and Newman, S. C. (2001). Mild dementia or cognitive impairment: the Modified Mini-Mental State examination (3MS) as a screen for dementia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 46, 506–510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borson, S., Scanlan, J., Brush, M., Vitaliano, P. and Dokmak, A. (2000). The mini-cog: a cognitive “vital signs” measure for dementia screening in multi-lingual elderly. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 15, 1021–1027.3.0.CO;2-6>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boustani, M., Peterson, B., Hanson, L., Harris, R. and Lohr, K. N. (2003). Screening for dementia in primary care: a summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Annals of Internal Medicine, 138, 927–937.Google Scholar
Brodaty, H. and Moore, C. M. (1997). The Clock Drawing Test for dementia of the Alzheimer's type: a comparison of three scoring methods in a memory disorders clinic. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12, 619–627.3.0.CO;2-H>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brodaty, H. et al. (2002). The GPCOG: a new screening test for dementia designed for general practice. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 50, 530–534.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brodaty, H., Kemp, N. M. and Low, L. F. (2004). Characteristics of the GPCOG, a screening tool for cognitive impairment. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 19, 870–874.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brodaty, H., Low, L.-F., Gibson, L. and Burns, K. (2006). What is the best dementia screening instrument for general practitioners to use? American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 14, 391–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooke, P. and Bullock, R. (1999). Validation of a 6 item cognitive impairment test with a view to primary care usage. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 14, 936–940.3.0.CO;2-1>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buschke, H. et al. (1999). Screening for dementia with the Memory Impairment Screen. Neurology, 52, 231–238.Google Scholar
Butler, K. A., Crisostomo, P. R., Webster, J. R. and Moran, M. B. (2002). Validating the time and change test to screen for dementia in an older Hispanic population. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 50, 397–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calero, M. D., Arnedo, M. L., Navarro, E., Ruiz-Pedrosa, M. and Carnero, C. (2002). Usefulness of a 15-item version of the Boston Naming Test in neuropsychological assessment of low-educational elders with dementia. Journal of Gerontology B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57, P187–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Callahan, C. M., Unverzagt, F. W., Hui, S. L., Perkins, A. J. and Hendrie, H. C. (2002). Six-item screener to identify cognitive impairment among potential subjects for clinical research. Medical Care, 40, 771–781.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crooks, V. C., Buckwalter, J. G., Petitti, D. B., Brody, K. K. and Yep, R. L. (2005a). Self-reported severe memory problems as a screen for cognitive impairment and dementia. Dementia, 4, 539–551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crooks, V. C., Clark, L., Petitti, D. B., Chui, H. and Chiu, V. (2005b). Validation of multi-stage telephone-based identification of cognitive impairment and dementia. BMC Neurology, 5, 8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, P. B., Morris, J. C. and Grant, E. (1990). Brief screening tests versus clinical staging in senile dementia of the Alzheimer type. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 38, 129–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Jonghe, J. F. (1997). Differentiating between demented and psychiatric patients with the Dutch version of the IQCODE. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12, 462–465.3.0.CO;2-Q>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Leonni Stanonik, M., Licata, C. A., Walton, N. C., Lounsbury, J. W., Hutson, R. K. and Dougherty, J. H. Jr. (2005). The Self Test: a screening tool for dementia requiring minimal supervision. International Psychogeriatrics, 17, 669–678.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Yebenes, M. J., Otero, A., Zunzunegui, M. V., Rodriguez-Laso, A., Sanchez-Sanchez, F. and Del Ser, T. (2003). Validation of a short cognitive tool for the screening of dementia in elderly people with low educational level. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18, 925–936.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Death, J., Douglas, A. and Kenny, R. A. (1993). Comparison of clock drawing with Mini-mental State Examination as a screening test in elderly acute hospital admissions. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 69, 696–700.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drachman, D. A., Swearer, J. M., Kane, K., Osgood, D., O'Toole, C. and Moonis, M. (1996). The cognitive assessment screening test (CAST) for dementia. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 9, 200–208.Google Scholar
Dwolatzky, T. et al. (2003). Validity of a novel computerized cognitive battery for mild cognitive impairment. BMC Geriatrics, 3, 4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erzigkeit, H. et al. (2001). The Bayer-Activities of Daily Living Scale (B-ADL): results from a validation study in three European countries. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 12, 348–358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farias, S. T., Mungas, D. and Jagust, W. (2005). Degree of discrepancy between self and other-reported everyday functioning by cognitive status: dementia, mild cognitive impairment, and healthy elders. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20, 827–834.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferrucci, L. et al. (1998). Is the telephone interview for cognitive status a valid alternative in persons who cannot be evaluated by the Mini-mental State Examination? Aging, 10, 332–338.Google ScholarPubMed
Flicker, L., Logiudice, D., Carlin, J. B. and Ames, D. (1997). The predictive value of dementia screening instruments in clinical populations. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12, 203–209.3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuh, J. L. et al. (1995). The Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE) as a screening tool for dementia for a predominantly illiterate Chinese population. Neurology, 45, 92–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gagnon, M. et al. (1990). Validity of the Mini-mental State Examination as a screening instrument for cognitive impairment and dementia in French elderly community residents. Neuroepidemiology, 9, 143–150.Google Scholar
Go, R. C. et al. (1997). Development and validation of a Structured Telephone Interview for Dementia Assessment (STIDA): the NIMH Genetics Initiative. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 10, 161–167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gomez de Caso, J. A., Rodriguez-Artalejo, F., Claveria, L. E. and Coria, F. (1994). Value of Hodkinson's test for detecting dementia and mild cognitive impairment in epidemiological surveys. Neuroepidemiology, 13, 64–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goold, P. C., Ward, M. and Carlin, E. M. (2003). Can the internet be used to improve sexual health awareness in web-wise young people? Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care, 29, 28–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, R. C., Green, J., Harrison, J. M. and Kutner, M. H. (1994). Screening for cognitive impairment in older individuals: validation study of a computer-based test. Archives of Neurology, 51, 779–786.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, R. C., Woodward, J. L. and Green, J. (1995). Validity of the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale for detection of cognitive impairment in the elderly. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 7, 357–360.Google ScholarPubMed
Heun, R., Papassotiropoulos, A. and Jennssen, F. (1998). The validity of psychometric instruments for detection of dementia in the elderly general population. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 13, 368–380.3.0.CO;2-9>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, J. et al. (2005). Validation of a brief screen for cognitive impairment (BSCI) administered by telephone for use in the medicare population. Disease Management, 8, 223–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horn, L., Cohen, C. I. and Teresi, J. (1989). The EASI: a self-administered screening test for cognitive impairment in the elderly. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 37, 848–855.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huppert, F. A. et al. (1996). Psychometric properties of the CAMCOG and its efficacy in the diagnosis of dementia. Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 3, 201–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iliffe, S., Booroff, A., Gallivan, S., Goldenberg, E., Morgan, P. and Haines, A. (1990). Screening for cognitive impairment in the elderly using the Mini-mental State Examination. British Journal of General Practice, 40, 277–279.Google ScholarPubMed
Inoue, M., Urakami, K., Taniguchi, M., Kimura, Y., Saito, J. and Nakashima, K. (2005). Evaluation of a computerized test system to screen for mild cognitive impairment. Psychogeriatrics, 5, 36–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inouye, S., Robison, J., Froehlich, T. and Richardson, E. (1998). The time and change test: a simple screening test for dementia. Journal of Gerontology A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 53, M281–286.Google Scholar
Irwig, L. et al. (1994). Guidelines for meta-analyses evaluating diagnostic tests. Annals of Internal Medicine, 120, 667–676.Google Scholar
Isella, V., Villa, L., Russo, A., Regazzoni, R., Ferrarese, C. and Appollonio, I. M. (2006). Discriminative and predictive power of an informant report in mild cognitive impairment. Journal of Neurology and Neurosurgical Psychiatry, 77, 166–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ivanoiu, A. et al. (2005). Memory evaluation with a new cued recall test in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neurology, 252, 47–55.Google Scholar
Iype, T., Ajitha, B. K., Antony, P., Ajeeth, N. B., Job, S. and Shaji, K. S. (2006). Usefulness of the Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment scale in South India. Journal of Neurology and Neurosurgical Psychiatry, 77, 513–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jarvenpaa, T. et al. (2002). Characteristics of two telephone screens for cognitive impairment. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 13, 149–155.Google Scholar
Jorm, A. F. (1994). A short form of the Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE): development and cross-validation. Psychological Medicine, 24, 145–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorm, A. F. (2004). The informant Questionnaire on cognitive decline in the elderly (IQCODE): a review. International Psychogeriatrics, 16, 275–293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jorm, A. F. and Jacomb, P. A. (1989). The Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE): socio-demographic correlates, reliability, validity and some norms. Psychological Medicine, 19, 1015–1022.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jorm, A. F., Christensen, H., Henderson, A. S., Jacomb, P. A., Korten, A. E. and Mackinnon, A. (1996). Informant ratings of cognitive decline of elderly people: relationship to longitudinal change on cognitive tests. Age and Ageing, 25, 125–129.Google Scholar
Karrasch, M., Sinerva, E., Gronholm, P., Rinne, J. and Laine, M. (2005). CERAD test performances in amnestic mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 111, 172–179.Google Scholar
Katzman, R., Brown, T., Fuld, P., Peck, A., Schechter, R. and Schimmel, H. (1983). Validation of a short Orientation-Memory-Concentration Test of cognitive impairment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 734–739.Google Scholar
Kawas, C., Segal, J., Stewart, W. F., Corrada, M. and Thal, L. J. (1994). A validation study of the Dementia Questionnaire. Archives of Neurology, 51, 901–906.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kilada, S., Gamaldo, A., Grant, E. A., Moghekar, A., Morris, J. C. and O'Brien, R. J. (2005). Brief screening tests for the diagnosis of dementia: comparison with the mini-mental state exam. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 19, 8–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knafelc, R. et al. (2003). The combination of cognitive testing and an informant questionnaire in screening for dementia. Age and Ageing, 32, 541–547.Google Scholar
Knesevich, J. W., LaBarge, E. and Edwards, D. (1986). Predictive value of the Boston Naming Test in mild senile dementia of the Alzheimer type. Psychiatry Research, 19, 155–161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knopman, D. S., Knudson, D., Yoes, M. E. and Weiss, D. J. (2000). Development and standardization of a new telephonic cognitive screening test: the Minnesota Cognitive Acuity Screen (MCAS). Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychological and Behavioral Neurology, 13, 286–296.Google Scholar
Kuslansky, G., Buschke, H., Katz, M., Sliwinski, M. and Lipton, R. B. (2002). Screening for Alzheimer's disease: the memory impairment screen versus the conventional three-word memory test. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 50, 1086–1091.Google Scholar
Lichtenberg, P. A., Vangel, S. J., Kimbarow, M. L. and Ross, T. P. (1996). The Boston Naming Test: clinical utility. Clinical Gerontologist, 16, 69–72.Google Scholar
Lipton, R. B. et al. (2003). Screening for dementia by telephone using the memory impairment screen. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 51, 1382–1390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lolk, A., Nielsen, H., Andersen, K., Andersen, J. and Kragh-Sorensen, P. (2000). CAMCOG as a screening instrument for dementia: the Odense study. Cambridge Cognitive Examination. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 102, 331–335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahoney, R., Johnston, K., Katona, C., Maxmin, K. and Livingston, G. (2005). The TE4D-Cog: a new test for detecting early dementia in English-speaking populations. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20, 1172–1179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manos, P. J. (1999). Ten-point clock test sensitivity for Alzheimer's disease in patients with MMSE scores greater then 23. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 14, 454–458.Google Scholar
McDowell, I., Kristjansson, B., Hill, G. B. and Hebert, R. (1997). Community screening for dementia: the Mini-mental State Examination (MMSE) and Modified Mini-mental State Examination (3MS) compared. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 50, 377–383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNamee, P., Bond, J. and Buck, D. (2001). Costs of dementia in England and Wales in the 21st century. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 261–266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meulen, E. F. et al. (2004). The seven minute screen: a neurocognitive screening test highly sensitive to various types of dementia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 75, 700–705.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Monsch, A. U. et al. (1995). Clinical validity of the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale in detecting Dementia of the Alzheimer type. A double cross-validation and application to a community-dwelling sample. Archives of Neurology, 52, 899–904.Google Scholar
Morales, J. M., Bermejo, F., Romero, M. and Del-Ser, T. (1997). Screening of dementia in community-dwelling elderly through informant report. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12, 808–816.Google Scholar
Mundt, J. C., Ferber, K. L., Rizzo, M. and Greist, J. H. (2001). Computer-automated dementia screening using a touch-tone telephone. Archives of Internal Medicine, 161, 2481–2487.Google Scholar
Mussi, C., Foroni, M., Valli, A., Ascari, S., Tolve, I. and Salvioli, G. (2002). The “time and change” test: an appropriate method to detect cognitive decline in the elderly. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 15, 12–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nasreddine, Z. S. et al. (2005). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53, 695–699.Google Scholar
Nishiwaki, Y., Breeze, E., Smeeth, L., Bulpitt, C. J., Peters, R. and Fletcher, A. E. (2004). Validity of the Clock-Drawing Test as a screening tool for cognitive impairment in the elderly. American Journal of Epidemiology, 160, 797–807.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petersen, R. C., Stevens, J. C., Ganguli, M., Tangalos, E. G., Cummings, J. L. and DeKosky, S. T. (2001). Practice parameter: early detection of dementia: mild cognitive impairment (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology, 56, 1133–1142.Google Scholar
Rhee, J. A., Chung, E. K. and Shin, M. H. (2004). Validating the Time and Change test to screen for dementia in elderly Koreans. BMC Public Health, 4, 52.Google Scholar
Ritchie, K. and Fuhrer, R. (1996). The validation of an informant screening test for irreversible cognitive decline in the elderly – performance characteristics within a general population sample. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 11, 149–156.Google Scholar
Roccaforte, W. H., Burke, W. J., Bayer, B. L. and Wengel, S. P. (1994). Reliability and validity of the Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire administered by telephone. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 7, 33–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarasqueta, C. et al. (2001). The validity of Hodkinson's Abbreviated Mental Test for dementia screening in Guipuzcoa, Spain. European Journal of Neurology, 8, 435–440.Google Scholar
Scheurich, A., Muller, M. J., Siessmeier, T., Bartenstein, P., Schmidt, L. G. and Fellgiebel, A. (2005). Validating the DemTect with 18-fluoro-2-deoxy-glucose positron emission tomography as a sensitive neuropsychological screening test for early Alzheimer disease in patients of a memory clinic. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 20, 271–277.Google Scholar
Seigerschmidt, E., Mosch, E., Siemen, M., Förstl, H. and Bickel, H. (2002). The clock drawing test and questionable dementia: reliability and validity. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 17, 1048–1054.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shankle, W. R. et al. (2005). Methods to improve the detection of mild cognitive impairment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, U. S. A., 102, 4919–4924.Google Scholar
Simon-Arndt, C. M., Hurtado, S. L. and Patriarca-Troyk, L. A. (2006). Acceptance of web-based personalized feedback: user ratings of an alcohol misuse prevention program targeting U.S. Marines. Health Communication, 20, 13–22.Google Scholar
Solomon, P. R. et al. (1998). A 7 minute neurocognitive screening battery highly sensitive to Alzheimer's disease. Archives of Neurology, 55, 349–355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Solomon, P. R. et al. (2000). Identifying dementia in the primary care practice. International Psychogeriatrics, 12, 483–493.Google Scholar
Storey, J. E., Rowland, J. T. J., Conforti, D. A. and Dickson, H. G. (2004). The Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment Scale (RUDAS): a multicultural cognitive assessment scale. International Psychogeriatrics, 16, 13–31.Google Scholar
Swearer, J. M., Drachman, D. A., Li, L., Kane, K. J., Dessureau, B. and Tabloski, P. (2002). Screening for dementia in “real world” settings: the Cognitive Assessment Screening Test (CAST). Clinical Neuropsychology, 16, 128–135.Google Scholar
Tobiansky, R., Blizard, R., Livingston, G. and Mann, A. (1995). The Gospel Oak Study stage IV: the clinical relevance of subjective memory impairment in older people. Psychological Medicine, 25, 779–786.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tombaugh, T. N. and McIntyre, N. J. (1992). The Mini-mental State Examination: a comprehensive review. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 40, 922–935.Google Scholar
Waite, L. M. et al. (1998). Screening for dementia using an informant interview. Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 5, 194–202.Google Scholar
Whelihan, W. M., Lesher, E. L., Kleban, M. H. and Granick, S. (1984). Mental status and memory assessment as predictors of dementia. Journal of Gerontology, 39, 572–576.Google Scholar
Wind, A. W., Schellevis, F. G., Van Staveren, G., Scholten, R. J., Jonker, C. and Van Eijk, J. (1997). Limitations of the mini-mental state examination in diagnosing dementia in general practice. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12, 101–108.Google Scholar
Wolf-Klein, G. P., Silverstone, F. A., Levy, A. P. and Brod, M. S. (1989). Screening for Alzheimer's disease by clock drawing. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 37, 730–734.Google Scholar
Yamamoto, S. et al. (2004). The clock drawing test as a valid screening method for mild cognitive impairment. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 18, 172–179.Google Scholar